Buddhism

For others it is a philosophy or a culture. There are so many kinds of Buddhism and so many contradictions within the overall tradition that it is almost impossible to define, but there are important common threads. The so-called “Three Jewels” (Triratna)—Buddha (see Buddha, Gautama Buddha), dharma (see Dharma), and saṇgha—are essential elements for Buddhists. In most sects there is the presence of certain of the teachings or concepts of Gautama Buddha, the Buddha Sākyamuni, who lived in Nepal and India some 2,500 years ago. Of primary importance to these teachings are śūnyatā, the sense of selflessness achieved by way of inner searching—often in a monastic setting—and a goal of nirvāna (see Nirvāna), or Enlightenment. Dharma, or proper behavior and truth, in the Buddhist world is manifested in the life and teachings of the Buddha. Saṇgha, or “community,” is the holy community of Buddhists, a place of spiritual refuge. Saṇgha can refer to a community of nuns or monks or to any group of devoted and spiritually committed Buddhists. At the basis of saṇgha are the “Four Noble Truths” of the Buddha's teaching. These are (1) the acceptance of dukkha, or transience and the suffering which comes with it; (2) the realization that it is tanhā, or the “thirst” for permanence that leads to suffering; (3) the understanding that by eliminating taṇha, dukkha can be overcome and nirvāna achieved; and (4) the AṣṠgika-mārga, or “Eightfold Path” to the elimination of taṇha taught by the Buddha in the first sermon after his Enlightenment.

The Eightfold Path contains the elements necessary to Enlightenment. These are (1) perfected understanding of the Four Noble Truths; (2) non-attachment; (3) perfected speech; (4) perfected conduct; (5) the pursuit of livelihood in such a way as to do no harm to others; (6) the production of good karma (see Karman); (7) the development of meditative mindfulness; and (8) perfected concentration.

A major division between Buddhists centers around the question of boddhisatvas (see Boddhisattva) and whether emphasis should fall on the individual salvation or that of the larger society. There are two major paths or “vehicles” (yāna) in Buddhism. The older Hīnayāna (see Hīnayāna Buddhism) or “Lesser Vehicle,” so termed by the reformist Mahāyāna (see Mahāyāna Buddhism) or “Larger Vehicle” group, is represented, for instance, by the Theravāda (see Theravāda Buddhism) and Sarvāstivāda sects which developed in India before the Common Era and have spread to various parts of the Asian continent. The Hīnayāna approach stresses the ideal of the arhat (see Arhat), the enlightened one who has attained nirvāna. The Mahayana groups stress the ideal of the bodhisattva, not as the earlier stages of Gautama Buddha's movement toward Enlightenment, but as the person concerned with achieving Buddhahood only in some distant eon as he works compassionately in this world for the salvation of others. It should be noted that within the larger divisions of Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna exist many diverse understandings and doctrinal divisions.

The original literature of Hīnayāna Buddhism is written primarily in the Middle India dialect of Sanskrit called Pāli (see Pāli). The Pāli Abhidhamma PiṠaka, for instance contains sermons (suttas) and Theravādan doctrine. The primary Mahāyāna scriptural form is the sūtra (sermon of the Buddha), which is traditionally recited or chanted as a form of worship. The best known of the sūtras is probably The Lotus Sūtra (the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra), which has a strong narrative aspect and stresses the relationship of all people to the deeds of the Buddha himself.

More esoteric forms of Buddhism include the Tantric tradition (see Tantric entries) and Zen Buddhism (see Zen Buddhism). Tantric Buddhism is influenced by Brahamanism (see Brahmanism) and is concerned with yogic (see Yoga) paths to salvation stressed in rituals and in texts called tantras. Zen, primarily practiced in Japan, developed from Chinese Ch'an Buddhism and emphasizes meditation rather than the worship of idols.

The myths of Buddhism are associated with the life of Gautama Buddha and are found primarily in the Pāli-language canon of the Theravāda tradition in first century BCE Sri Lanka, although stories have emerged from other traditions as well.

US History Encyclopedia: Buddhism
Top Home > Library > History, Politics & Society > US History EncyclopediaBy 2002 Buddhism had become highly visible in many countries outside of Asia. Although it never became nearly as popular as in Asia, by the 1990s Buddhism's influence on America was visible in the arts, in the steadily increasing number of converts and Buddhist institutions, and in the growing recognition of Buddhist groups as participants in the multireligious composition of U.S. society. In each Asian culture, it generally took many centuries for Buddhism to acculturate. In contrast, in the West, attempts to create adapted, regionalized forms of Buddhism occurred at a much faster pace. New schools and lineages additionally pluralized the spectrum of Buddhist traditions present in Western countries.

History

The origin of Buddhism in America can be traced to Chinese immigrants who began to appear on the West Coast in the 1840s. By 1852, around 20,000 Chinese were present in California, and within a decade, nearly one-tenth of the state's population was Chinese.

Japanese Buddhism developed more slowly in America than the Chinese form, but had much greater impact. By 1890, the Japanese population in the United States was barely 2,000. The World Parliament of Religion, held in 1893, radically changed the landscape for Japanese Buddhism in America. Among the participants was a Rinzai Zen monk, Shaku So[UNK]en, who returned to America in 1905, lecturing in several cities, and establishing a basic ground for the entry of Zen. Upon his return to Japan in 1906, three of his students were selected to promote Rinzai in America: Nyo[UNK]gen Senzaki, Shaku So[UNK]katsu, and Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki.

Rinzai was one of several Zen traditions to develop in America. So[UNK]to[UNK] Zen began to appear in America in the 1950s, and by the mid-1950s, Soyu Matsuoka Ro[UNK]shi had established the Chicago Buddhist Temple. Shunryu Suzuki Ro[UNK]shi arrived in San Francisco in 1959, founding the San Francisco Zen Center shortly thereafter. His (mostly Western) successors continued the So[UNK]to[UNK] lineage. Another form of Zen that took root in America attempts to harmonize the major doctrines and practices of each school into a unified whole. Proponents of this approach include Taizan Maezumi Ro[UNK]shi (who arrived in 1956), Hakuun Yasutani Ro[UNK]shi (who first visited the United States in 1962), and Philip Kapleau. Also significant are Robert Aitken Ro[UNK]shi, who founded the Diamond Sangha in Hawaii in 1959, Eido[UNK] Shimano Ro[UNK]shi, who first came to the United States as a translator for Yasutani Ro[UNK]shi, and Joshu Sasaki Ro[UNK]shi, who founded the Cimarron Zen Center in Los Angeles in 1968 and the Mt. Baldy Zen Center three years later.

Zen was not the only Japanese Buddhist tradition to make an appearance in America before the turn of the twentieth century. In 1899 two Japanese missionaries were sent to San Francisco to establish the Buddhist Mission of North America, an organization associated with the Pure Land school of Japanese Buddhism. Reincorporated in 1944 as the Buddhist Churches of America, it remains one of the most stable Buddhist communities in North America.

In the 1960s, another form of Japanese Buddhism, now known as So[UNK]ka Gakkai International-USA, appeared on the American landscape, and by 1974 it boasted over 200,000 members. This group grew out of the So[UNK]ka Gakkai movement in Japan, a nonmeditative form of Buddhism that based its teachings on the thirteenth century figure Nichiren (1222–1282). Although the group splintered in the late twentieth century, it remained a formidable Buddhist presence in America, having become extremely attractive to European American and African American Buddhists.

At the same time the Chinese were once again making their presence visible in American Buddhism. One notable addition was a largely monastic group known as the Dharma Realm Buddhist Association, created by a venerable monk named Hsüan-Hua. Of even larger size was the Hsi-Lai Temple outside Los Angeles, founded in 1978, and eventually offering a wide variety of Buddhist teachings and services. By 2002 Chinese Buddhist groups could be found in virtually every major metropolitan area.

The Buddhist culture to enter America most recently is the Tibetan. Although a few Tibetan Buddhist groups appeared in the West prior to 1960, the majority came after China's invasion and occupation of their country. Communities from each of the four major Tibetan sects can now be found in America. The Tibetan groups were the most colorful of all the Buddhist groups prospering in late twentieth century America, possessing a rich tradition of Buddhist art and a powerful psychological approach to mental health. In the early 2000s they continued to grow rapidly.

The final sectarian tradition to be considered is that of the Therava[UNK]da. Most recently, groups from Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar migrated to the United States to escape the economic and political uncertainty of their native countries. Therava[UNK]da temples sprang up in the Southeast Asian enclaves of major cities. The Therava[UNK]dabased Vipassana[UNK] movement became the most attractive form of this tradition among Euro-Americans.

Institutional Issues

Five areas of institutional concern can be outlined in the American Buddhist tradition: ethnicity, practice, democratization, engagement, and adaptation. Two questions help to contextualize these mutually influencing issues: first, how Buddhist identity is determined, and finally, the degree to which ecumenicity might play a role in providing a unifying instrument for the exceedingly diverse spectrum of Buddhist traditions in North America.

Who is a Buddhist? Identifying and quantifying American Buddhists has been an important issue. By the mid-1990s, scholars estimated the American Buddhist population to be four to five million. Although there were many possible methods of determining Buddhist identity in America, the most accepted approach was that of self identification. This approach allowed each group to be counted regardless of how they interpreted and practiced Buddhism.

Ethnicity. One late twentieth century attempt to quantify the American Buddhist population estimated that of the total Buddhist population in the United States, perhaps 800,000 were Euro-American convert Buddhists. This suggested that the vast majority of Buddhists in America were Asian immigrants. The relationship between Asian American Buddhists and converted Buddhists was tenuous.

Practice. There was no disagreement among researchers that Asian immigrant Buddhist communities and American convert communities engaged in significantly different expressions of Buddhist practice. The general consensus was that American converts gravitate toward the various meditation traditions, while Asian immigrants maintain practices consistent with ritual activity or Pure Land observance.

Democratization. While Asian Buddhism was, for the most part, primarily hierarchical and highly authoritarian, the forms of American Buddhism that developed in the late twentieth century underwent a process of democratization. It could be observed in changing patterns of authority in the various Buddhist sanghas, or communities, highlighted by a reevaluation of the relationship between the monastic and lay communities. Second, democratization could be witnessed in changing gender roles in American Buddhism, especially in the prominence of women. Finally, it could be seen in the manner in which individuals pursuing a nontraditional lifestyle, particularly with regard to sexual preferences, found a meaningful role in American Buddhist communities.

Engagement. "Socially engaged Buddhism" has application to a wide variety of general human rights issues, such as antiviolence and environmental concerns, but also to the lives of individual Buddhists. The greatest challenge for socially engaged Buddhism in the West is organizational. In the early 2000s, it was far less developed in its organizational patterns and strategies than its Christian or Jewish counterparts. Nonetheless, an exciting array of activities could be documented in the records of the individual American Buddhist communities.

Adaptation. Perhaps the one issue that dominated the early comprehensive books on American Buddhism was adaptation or acculturation. As one early researcher asked, "Is there a characteristically American style of Buddhism?" Some North American Buddhists were concerned about the implications of altering the Buddhist tradition in the name of adaptation. American Buddhism has created, in addition to its distinct practices, a series of enterprises that Asian Buddhism never imagined: residential communities, businesses, farms, hospices, publishing companies, meditation products, cottage industries, and the like. Critics worried that these innovations represented a distraction from the purpose of Buddhist practice.

Ecumenicism. In each of the issues cited above, it is possible to discern the need for cooperative discussions between American Buddhists of all traditions. In July 1987, a conference on world Buddhism in North America was sponsored by the Zen Lotus Society in Ann Arbor, Michigan. It included a wide variety of talks, panel discussions, and meetings in an effort to bring together representatives of the Buddhist traditions in America to work together toward common goals. In the end, they sought to create a protective umbrella under which the issues of ethnicity, practice, democratization, engagement, and adaptation could be addressed productively, ushering in a successful future for the Buddhist movement in America.

Jainism

Both Buddhism (See Buddhism, Development of) and Jainism developed in the sixth century bce as a form of protest against Hinduism. They offered alternatives to the caste system (See Hinduism, Development of) and raised objections to the movement of the time that had begun to view the Vedas as holy scripture.

"Jain" means "conqueror." Its founder, Mahavira ("Great Hero"), was a contemporary of the Buddha, Confucius, Lao Tzu, and the Hebrew prophets Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Isaiah. With the possible exception of Lao Tzu and Confucius, none of these men met or were influenced by each other, but the times certainly must have been ripe for spiritual movements.

Much like the Buddha, Mahavira's principal concept was that of dualism. The universe consists of the two opposing forces of good and evil. But where the Buddha discovered the Middle Way between the two, Mahavira proposed another philosophy. He understood the "good" in terms of soul, or life. Evil was lifeless, or matter. Soul or feelings exist in everything, even the dust of the ground or rocks of the landscape. But soul is entrapped in matter, "coated," so to speak, forming a material covering imposed by karma (See Hinduism). The human predicament is that the body (material, evil) is thus a form of prison for the soul (spiritual, good). So since karma placed you into this shell, the only way to break out is by extreme asceticism (See Ascetic).

This is to be carried out through five principal activities:

Non-injury to life

Truthfulness

Taking nothing unless it is offered

Celibacy

Renouncement of all attachments

Pertaining to the first activity, Jains are vegetarians. Some even place screens over lamps to keep moths from hurting themselves in the flames. Others wear masks to keep from breathing in insects or sweep the path before them to avoid stepping on and crushing ants or bugs. This extreme form of attention is meant to avoid bad karmic repercussions in the next life.

Certainly the most well known of those influenced by Jainism was Mahatma Gandhi (See Gandhi, Mahatma). Mahavira's principles, especially those concerning non-injury, greatly shaped Gandhi's practice of nonviolent political opposition. Such practices proved to be a great influence on a young student named Martin Luther King Jr. So it can be argued that Jainism had a great deal to do with shaping the America we have known since the decade of the 1960s.

Today Jainism is considered a minority sect within Hinduism, but Mahavira has taken his place among the great religious founders of all time. There have only been nine of them in the history of the great world religions: Buddha (Buddhism), Confucius (Confucianism), Jesus (Christianity), Lao Tzu (Daoism), Mahavira (Jainism), Moses (Judaism), Muhammad (Islam), Nanak (Sikhism), and Zoroaster (Zoroastrianism).

Shintoism

‘Shintoism’ or ‘Shinto’ (the more common term), as a system of ancestor and nature worship native to Japan. Shinto as a systematic, unified religion is as much a creation of modern Japan's Meiji state (1867-1912) as it is something that has existed throughout Japan's history. The basic meaning of the word ‘Shinto’ until the nineteenth century was local religion in general, and although Shinto usually referred to Japanese religion, it did not necessarily have to (e.g. the 1605 anthropological work Ryūkyū shintō-ki, or Account of Local Religion [Shinto] in Ryukyu, the Kingdom of Ryukyu then being a separate country from Japan). Viewed historically, we may identify three related yet distinct varieties of ‘Shinto’: (i) local religious practices and beliefs that originated before Buddhist influence; (ii) certain of these local practices and beliefs that Buddhism later subsumed, systematized, and modified, from the ninth to the eighteenth centuries; and (iii) Japan's ‘national religion’, with varying degrees of connection to the state, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Shinto never articulated an overall theory of the body, but the first variety of Shinto closely linked the sexual body with agriculture and the forces of nature.

Important artifacts from the middle Jōmon period (c.3500-2400 bce) and later, include phallic stones (sekibō), ranging in height from 2 m to 50 cm, and clay female figures with prominent breasts and hips (dogū), sometimes appearing pregnant, most approximately 30 cm in height. Although there is disagreement over the details, most scholars agree that ancient inhabitants of Japan connected these objects with magico-religious rites to promote bountiful harvests. Prehistoric residents of the Japanese islands probably connected the mystery of human reproduction with agricultural productivity, and the female figures symbolized both mother and earth as locus of mysterious power.

The notion of mysterious power gradually developed into the Shinto concept of kami, often translated as ‘deity’. The most basic meaning of the term is: that which is above other things like it — in other words, that which is distinctive. An unusually large tree, an outcropping of rock, a waterfall, certain animals, and even certain people are examples of things that have qualified as kami owing to some distinctive attribute the local people regarded as significant. Though part of a world of spirits, kami were not transcendent. They linked the visible world with the realms beyond direct sensory apprehension.

According to ancient mythology, the Japanese islands themselves were created by the sexual activities of anthropomorphic kami. For example, in Chronicles of Japan, two creation deities, lzanagi and Izanami, stand on the Floating Bridge of Heaven and say ‘Is there no country beneath?’ They then thrust down a heavenly jewelled spear, repeatedly, until they found the vast ocean beneath. Brine dripped from the point of the spear, coagulated, and became an island on which the two deities dwelt. They continued the creation process after the female deity explained that her body has a place that is the source of femininity and the male deity explained that his had a place that is the source of masculinity. They united these two places to form numerous other islands. In these myths the deities' sexuality was the creative power of nature.

Shinto typically associated disease and death with pollution and, accordingly, developed purification rites. It celebrated health, prosperity, and life, which it associated with the creative forces of nature. A common metaphor for nature's generative forces was the sexual body. Phallic stones, poles, and etchings along roadsides, for example, functioned to protect against nature's polluting forces. Ancient agricultural deities often existed as a male and female pair, sometimes depicted embracing each other. Wooden or stone representations of male or female genitalia, or a pair of such objects, became the kami-body in shrines throughout many parts of the Japanese islands (the kami-body is an object in which the spirit of a deity was thought to reside). Even today, representations of sexual organs occasionally serve as the kami in Japanese shrines and can be seen in public festivals celebrating the shrine's kami.

During the late nineteenth century, Japan's Meiji state sought to revamp Shinto to enhance the process of nation-building (i.e. of Japanese thinking of themselves as Japanese). As part of a general policy of policing morality, the leaders of modern Japan sought to suppress the overtly sexual symbolism of Shinto. Instead of the sexual body, modern Japan's state Shinto stressed kokutai, the ‘national body’ (often translated ‘national polity’) — a vague but potent concept of Japanese essence embodied in an allegedly unbroken lineage of emperors descending from the solar deity (Amaterasu). What began in ancient Japan as worship of the sexual body, ended in modern Japan (until 1946) as worship of the national body. Neither ‘body’ plays a major role in today's Shinto, but vestiges of each remain.

Bahai Faith

The Bahá'í Faith is a monotheistic religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in nineteenth-century Persia, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all humankind.[1] There are an estimated five to six million Bahá'ís around the world in more than 200 countries and territories.[2][3]

In the Bahá'í Faith, religious history is seen to have unfolded through a series of divine messengers, each of whom established a religion that was suited to the needs of the time and the capacity of the people. These messengers have included Abraham, Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad and others, including most recently Bahá'u'lláh. In Bahá'í belief, each messenger taught of the next, and Bahá'u'lláh's life and teachings fulfill the end-time promises of previous scriptures. Humanity is understood to be in a process of collective evolution, and the need of the present time is for the gradual establishment of peace, justice and unity on a global scale.[4]

The word "Bahá’í" (pronounced /bəˈhaɪ/)[5] is used either as an adjective to refer to the Bahá'í Faith or as a term for a follower of Bahá'u'lláh, and the word is not a noun meaning the religion as a whole.[6] It is derived from the Arabic Bahá’, meaning "glory" or "splendour".[7] The term "Bahaism" (or "Baha'ism") has been used in the past, but is fading from use.

Beliefs
Three core principles establish a basis for Bahá'í teachings and doctrine: the unity of God, the unity of religion, and the unity of humankind.[3] From these postulates stems the belief that God periodically reveals his will through divine educators, whose purpose is to transform the character of humankind and develop, within those who respond, moral and spiritual qualities. Religion is thus seen as orderly, unified, and progressive from age to age.[8]

God
Main article: God in the Bahá'í Faith

Bahá'í Temple, Ingleside, Sydney, AustraliaThe Bahá'í writings describe a single, personal, inaccessible, omniscient, omnipresent, imperishable, and almighty God who is the creator of all things in the universe.[9][10] The existence of God and the universe is thought to be eternal, without a beginning or end.[11] Though inaccessible directly, God is nevertheless seen as conscious of creation, with a will and purpose that is expressed through messengers termed Manifestations of God.[9][12]

Bahá'í teachings state that God is too great for humans to fully comprehend, or to create a complete and accurate image, by themselves; human understanding of God is through his revelation via his Manifestations of God.[13][14] In the Bahá'í religion God is often referred to by titles and attributes (e.g. the All-Powerful, or the All-Loving), and there is a substantial emphasis on monotheism; such doctrines as the Trinity contradict the Bahá'í view that God is single and has no equal.[15] The Bahá'í teachings state that the attributes which are applied to God are used to translate Godliness into human terms and also to help individuals concentrate on their own attributes in worshipping God to develop their potentialities on their spiritual path.[13][14] According to the Bahá'í teachings the human purpose is to learn to know and love God through such methods as prayer and reflection.[13]


Symbols of many religions on the pillar of the Bahá'í House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois, U.S.Religion
Main article: Bahá'í Faith and the unity of religion
See also: Progressive revelation
Bahá'í notions of progressive religious revelation result in their accepting the validity of most of the world's religions, whose founders and central figures are seen as Manifestations of God. Religious history is interpreted as a series of dispensations, where each manifestation brings a somewhat broader and more advanced revelation, suited for the time and place in which it was expressed.[11] Specific religious social teachings (e.g., the direction of prayer, or dietary restrictions) may be revoked by a subsequent manifestation so that a more appropriate requirement for the time and place may be established. Conversely, certain general principles (e.g. neighbourliness, or charity) are seen to be universal and consistent. In Bahá'í belief, this process of progressive revelation will not end; however, it is believed to be cyclical. Bahá'ís do not expect a new manifestation of God to appear within 1000 years of Bahá'u'lláh's revelation.[16][17]

Bahá'í beliefs are sometimes described as syncretic combinations of earlier religions' beliefs.[18] Bahá'ís, however, assert that their religion is a distinct tradition with its own scriptures, teachings, laws, and history.[11][19] Its religious background in Shi'a Islam is seen as analogous to the Jewish context in which Christianity was established.[20] Bahá'ís describe their faith as an independent world religion, differing from the other traditions in its relative age and in the appropriateness of Bahá'u'lláh's teachings to the modern context.[21] Bahá'u'lláh is believed to have fulfilled the messianic expectations of these precursor faiths.[22]

Human beings

The Ringstone symbol represents humanity's connection to GodMain article: Bahá'í Faith and the unity of humanity
The Bahá'í writings state that human beings have a "rational soul", and that this provides the species with a unique capacity to recognize God's station and humanity's relationship with its creator. Every human is seen to have a duty to recognize God through His messengers, and to conform to their teachings.[23] Through recognition and obedience, service to humanity and regular prayer and spiritual practice, the Bahá'í writings state that the soul becomes closer to God, the spiritual ideal in Bahá'í belief. When a human dies, the soul passes into the next world, where its spiritual development in the physical world becomes a basis for judgment and advancement in the spiritual world. Heaven and Hell are taught to be spiritual states of nearness or distance from God that describe relationships in this world and the next, and not physical places of reward and punishment achieved after death.[24]

The Bahá'í writings emphasize the essential equality of human beings, and the abolition of prejudice. Humanity is seen as essentially one, though highly varied; its diversity of race and culture are seen as worthy of appreciation and acceptance. Doctrines of racism, nationalism, caste, social class and gender-based hierarchy are seen as artificial impediments to unity.[3] The Bahá'í teachings state that the unification of humankind is the paramount issue in the religious and political conditions of the present world.[11]


Summary
Shoghi Effendi, the appointed head of the religion from 1921 to 1957, wrote the following summary of what he considered to be the distinguishing principles of Bahá'u'lláh's teachings, which, he said, together with the laws and ordinances of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas constitute the bedrock of the Bahá'í Faith:

The independent search after truth, unfettered by superstition or tradition; the oneness of the entire human race, the pivotal principle and fundamental doctrine of the Faith; the basic unity of all religions; the condemnation of all forms of prejudice, whether religious, racial, class or national; the harmony which must exist between religion and science; the equality of men and women, the two wings on which the bird of humankind is able to soar; the introduction of compulsory education; the adoption of a universal auxiliary language; the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty; the institution of a world tribunal for the adjudication of disputes between nations; the exaltation of work, performed in the spirit of service, to the rank of worship; the glorification of justice as the ruling principle in human society, and of religion as a bulwark for the protection of all peoples and nations; and the establishment of a permanent and universal peace as the supreme goal of all mankind—these stand out as the essential elements [which Bahá'u'lláh proclaimed].[25]
Social principles
The following principles are frequently listed as a quick summary of the Bahá'í teachings. They are derived from transcripts of speeches given by `Abdu'l-Bahá during his tour of Europe and North America in 1912.[26][27] The list is not authoritative and a variety of such lists circulate.[19][27][28]

Unity of God
Unity of religion
Unity of humankind
Equality between men and women
Elimination of all forms of prejudice
World peace
Harmony of religion and science
Independent investigation of truth
Universal compulsory education
Universal auxiliary language
Obedience to government and non-involvement in partisan politics
Elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty
With specific regard to the pursuit of world peace, Bahá'u'lláh prescribed a world-embracing collective security arrangement as necessary for the establishment of a lasting peace.

Mystical teachings
Although the Bahá'í teachings have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, there exist a number of foundational texts that have been described as mystical.[11] The Seven Valleys is considered Bahá'u'lláh's "greatest mystical composition." It was written to a follower of Sufism, in the style of `Attar, a Muslim poet,[29][30] and sets forth the stages of the soul's journey towards God. It was first translated into English in 1906, becoming one of the earliest available books of Bahá'u'lláh to the West. The Hidden Words is another book written by Bahá'u'lláh during the same period, containing 153 short passages in which Bahá'u'lláh claims to have taken the basic essence of certain spiritual truths and written them in brief form.[31]

Covenant
Main article: Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh
The Bahá'í teachings speak of both a "Greater Covenant",[32] being universal and endless, and a "Lesser Covenant", being unique to each religious dispensation. The Lesser Covenant is viewed as an agreement between a Messenger of God and his followers and includes social practices and the continuation of authority in the religion. At this time Bahá'ís view Bahá'u'lláh's revelation as a binding lesser covenant for his followers; in the Bahá'í writings being firm in the covenant is considered a virtue to work toward.[33] The Greater Covenant is viewed as a more enduring agreement between God and mankind, where a Manifestation of God is expected to come to humanity about every thousand years, at times of turmoil and uncertainty.

With unity as an essential teaching of the religion, Bahá'ís follow an administration they believe is divinely ordained, and therefore see attempts to create schisms and divisions as efforts that are contrary to the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh. Schisms have occurred over the succession of authority, but any Bahá'í divisions have had relatively little success and have failed to attract a sizeable following.[34] The followers of such divisions are regarded as Covenant-breakers and shunned, essentially excommunicated.[33][35]

HistoryBahá'í timeline
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1844 The Báb declares his mission in Shiraz, Iran
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1850 The Báb is publicly executed in Tabriz, Iran
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1852 Thousands of Bábís are executed
Bahá'u'lláh is imprisoned and forced into exile
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1863 Bahá'u'lláh first announces his claim to divine revelation
He is forced to leave Baghdad for Constantinople, then Adrianople
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1868 Bahá'u'lláh is forced into harsher confinement in `Akká, Palestine
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1892 Bahá'u'lláh dies near `Akká
His will appointed `Abdu'l-Bahá as successor
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1908 `Abdu'l-Bahá is released from prison
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1921 `Abdu'l-Bahá dies in Haifa
His will appoints Shoghi Effendi as Guardian
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1957 Shoghi Effendi dies in England
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1963 The Universal House of Justice is first elected

Main article: Bahá'í history
Bahá'í history is often traced through a sequence of leaders, beginning with the Báb's May 23, 1844 declaration in Shiraz, Iran, and ultimately resting on an administrative order established by the central figures of the religion. The tradition was mostly isolated to the Persian and Ottoman empires until after the death of Bahá'u'lláh in 1892, at which time he had followers in thirteen countries of Asia and Africa.[36] Under the leadership of his son, `Abdu'l-Bahá, the religion gained a footing in Europe and America, and was consolidated in Iran, where it still suffers intense persecution.[37] After the death of `Abdu'l-Bahá in 1921, the leadership of the Bahá'í community entered a new phase, evolving from that of a single individual to an administrative order with a system of both elected bodies and appointed individuals.[38]

The Báb
Main article: Báb

Shrine of the Báb in Haifa, Israel.On May 23 1844 Siyyid `Alí-Muhammad of Shiraz, Iran proclaimed that he was "the Báb" (الباب "the Gate"), after a Shi`a religious concept.[37] His followers were therefore known as Bábís. As the Báb's teachings spread, which the Islamic clergy saw as a threat, his followers came under increased persecution and torture.[11] The conflicts escalated in several places to military sieges by the Shah's army. The Báb himself was imprisoned and eventually executed in 1850.[39]

Bahá'ís see the Báb as the forerunner of the Bahá'í Faith, because the Báb's writings introduced the concept of "He whom God shall make manifest", a Messianic figure whose coming, according to Bahá'ís, was announced in the scriptures of all of the world's great religions, and whom Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, claimed to be in 1863.[11] The Báb's tomb, located in Haifa, Israel, is an important place of pilgrimage for Bahá'ís. The remains of the Báb were brought secretly from Iran to the Holy Land and were eventually interred in the tomb built for them in a spot specifically designated by Bahá'u'lláh.[40]

Bahá'u'lláh
Main article: Bahá'u'lláh
Mírzá Husayn `Alí Núrí was one of the early followers of the Báb, who later took the title of Bahá'u'lláh. He was arrested and imprisoned for this involvement in 1852. Bahá'u'lláh relates that in 1853, while incarcerated in the dungeon of the Síyáh-Chál in Tehran, he received the first intimations that he was the one anticipated by the Báb.[3]

Shortly thereafter he was expelled from Tehran to Baghdad, in the Ottoman Empire;[3] then to Constantinople (now Istanbul); and then to Adrianople (now Edirne). In 1863, at the time of his banishment from Baghdad to Constantinople, Bahá'u'lláh declared his claim to a divine mission to his family and followers. Tensions then grew between him and Subh-i-Azal, the appointed leader of the Bábís who did not recognize Bahá'u'lláh's claim. Throughout the rest of his life Bahá'u'lláh gained the allegiance of most of the Bábís, who came to be known as Bahá'ís. Beginning in 1866, he began declaring his mission as a Messenger of God in letters to the world's religious and secular rulers, including Pope Pius IX, Napoleon III, and Queen Victoria.

In 1868 Bahá'u'lláh was banished by Sultan Abdülâziz a final time to the Ottoman penal colony of `Akká, in present-day Israel.[41] Towards the end of his life, the strict and harsh confinement was gradually relaxed, and he was allowed to live in a home near `Akká, while still officially a prisoner of that city.[41] He died there in 1892. Bahá'ís regard his resting place at Bahjí as the Qiblih to which they turn in prayer each day. During his lifetime, Bahá'u'lláh left a large volume of writings. The Kitáb-i-Aqdas (The Most Holy Book), and the Kitáb-i-Íqán (The Book of Certitude) are recognized as major theological works, and the Hidden Words and the Seven Valleys as mystical treatises.[42]

`Abdu'l-Bahá
Main article: `Abdu'l-Bahá
`Abbás Effendi was Bahá'u'lláh's eldest son, known by the title of `Abdu'l-Bahá (Servant of Bahá). His father left a Will that appointed `Abdu'l-Bahá as the leader of the Bahá'í community, and designated him as the "Centre of the Covenant", "Head of the Faith", and the sole authoritative interpreter of Bahá'u'lláh's writings.[40][43] `Abdu'l-Bahá had shared his father's long exile and imprisonment, which continued until `Abdu'l-Bahá's own release as a result of the Young Turk Revolution in 1908. Following his release he led a life of travelling, speaking, teaching, and maintaining correspondence with communities of believers and individuals, expounding the principles of the Bahá'í Faith.[3]

Bahá'í administration
Main article: Bahá'í administration
Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Aqdas and The Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá are foundational documents of the Bahá'í administrative order. Bahá'u'lláh established the elected Universal House of Justice, and `Abdu'l-Bahá established the appointed hereditary Guardianship and clarified the relationship between the two institutions.[40][44] In his Will, `Abdu'l-Bahá appointed his eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi, as the first Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith.[44]

Shoghi Effendi throughout his lifetime translated Bahá'í texts; developed global plans for the expansion of the Bahá'í community; developed the Bahá'í World Centre; carried on a voluminous correspondence with communities and individuals around the world; and built the administrative structure of the religion, preparing the community for the election of the Universal House of Justice.[3] He died in 1957 under conditions that did not allow for a successor to be appointed.[45][46]

At local, regional, and national levels, Bahá'ís elect members to nine-person Spiritual Assemblies, which run the affairs of the religion. There are also appointed individuals working at various levels, including locally and internationally, which perform the function of propagating the teachings and protecting the community. The latter do not serve as clergy, which the Bahá'í Faith does not have.[11][47] The Universal House of Justice, first elected in 1963, remains the successor and supreme governing body of the Bahá'í Faith, and its 9 members are elected every five years by the members of all National Spiritual Assemblies.[48] Any male Bahá'í, 21 years or older, is eligible to be elected to the Universal House of Justice; all other positions are open to male and female Bahá'ís.[49]

International plans
In 1937 Shoghi Effendi launched a seven year plan for the Bahá'ís of North America , followed by another in 1946.[50] In 1953, he launched the first international plan, the Ten Year World Crusade. This plan included extremely ambitious goals for the expansion of Bahá'í communities and institutions, the translation of Bahá'í texts into several new languages, and the sending of Bahá'í pioneers into previously unreached nations.[51] He announced in letters during the Ten Year Crusade that it would be followed by other plans under the direction of the Universal House of Justice, which was elected in 1963 at the culmination of the Crusade. The House of Justice then launched a nine year plan in 1964, and a series of subsequent multi-year plans of varying length and goals followed, guiding the direction of the international Bahá'í community.[52]

Since 1996 the House of Justice has been directing communities to prepare for large-scale expansion, creating new institutions and training institutes. The Bahá'ís around the world are currently being encouraged to focus on children's classes, youth groups, devotional gatherings, and a systematic study of the religion known as study circles.[53] The years from 2001 until 2021 represent four successive five-year plans, culminating in the centennial anniversary of the passing of `Abdu'l-Bahá.[54][55]

Demographics
Main article: Bahá'í Faith by country
See also: Bahá'í statistics

The Bahá'í House of Worship in New Delhi, India attracts an average of 4 million visitors a year. It is popularly known as the Lotus Temple.A Bahá'í published document reported 4.74 million Bahá'ís in 1986 growing at a rate of 4.4%.[56] Bahá'í sources since 1991 usually estimate the worldwide Bahá'í population to be above 5 million.[57] The World Christian Encyclopedia, 2001,p 4 estimated 7.1 million Bahá'ís in the world in 2000, representing 218 countries.

From its origins in the Persian and Ottoman Empires, by the early 20th century there were a number of converts in South and South East Asia, Europe, and North America. During the 1950s and 1960s vast travel teaching efforts brought the religion to almost every country and territory of the world. By the 1990s Bahá'ís were developing programs for systematic consolidation on a large scale, and the early 21st century saw large influxes of new adherents around the world. The Bahá'í Faith is currently the largest religious minority in Iran.[58]

According to The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2004:

The majority of Bahá'ís live in Asia (3.6 million), Africa (1.8 million), and Latin America (900,000). According to some estimates, the largest Bahá'í community in the world is in India, with 2.2 million Bahá'ís, next is Iran, with 350,000, and the US, with 150,000. Aside from these countries, numbers vary greatly. Currently, no country has a Bahá'í majority.[59]
The Bahá'í religion was listed in The Britannica Book of the Year (1992–present) as the second most widespread of the world's independent religions in terms of the number of countries represented. Britannica claims that it is established in 247 countries and territories; represents over 2,100 ethnic, racial, and tribal groups; has scriptures translated into over 800 languages; and has seven million adherents worldwide 2002.[60] Additionally, Bahá'ís have self organized in most of the nations of the earth.

The Bahá'í religion was ranked by the FP magazine as the world's second fastest growing religion by percentage (1.7%) in 2007.[61]

Social practices
Laws
Main article: Bahá'í laws

Students of School for Girls, Tehran, 13 August 1933. This photograph may be of the students of Tarbiyat School for Girls which was established by the Bahá'í Community of Tehran in 1911; the school was closed by government decree in 1934. Source: History of Bahá'í Educational Efforts in Iran.The laws of the Bahá'í Faith primarily come from the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, written by Bahá'u'lláh.[62] The following are a few examples of basic laws and religious observances.

Prayer in the Bahá'í Faith consists of obligatory prayer and devotional (general) prayer. Bahá'ís over the age of 15 must individually recite an obligatory prayer each day, using fixed words and form. In addition to the daily obligatory prayer, believers are directed to daily offer devotional prayer and to meditate and study sacred scripture. There is no set form for devotions and meditations, though the devotional prayers written by the central figures of the Bahá'í Faith and collected in prayer books are held in high esteem. Reading aloud of prayers from prayer books is a typical feature of Bahá'í gatherings.
Backbiting and gossip are prohibited and denounced.
Adult Bahá'ís in good health should observe a nineteen-day sunrise-to-sunset fast each year from March 2 through March 20.
Bahá'ís are forbidden to drink alcohol or to take drugs, unless prescribed by doctors.
Sexual relationships are permitted only between a husband and wife, and thus premarital and homosexual sex are forbidden. (See also Homosexuality and the Bahá'í Faith)
Gambling is forbidden.
Fanaticism is forbidden.
Adherence to ritual is condemned, with the notable exception of the obligatory prayers.
While some of the laws from the Kitáb-i-Aqdas are applicable at the present time and may be enforced to a degree by the administrative institutions,[63][64] Bahá'u'lláh has provided for the progressive application of other laws that are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Bahá'í society. The laws, when not in direct conflict with the civil laws of the country of residence, are binding on every Bahá'í,[63][65] and the observance of personal laws, such as prayer or fasting, is the sole responsibility of the individual.[62][66]

Marriage
Main article: Bahá'í marriage
Bahá'í marriage is the union of a man and a woman. Its purpose is mainly to foster spiritual harmony, fellowship and unity between the two partners and to provide a stable and loving environment for the rearing of children.[67] The Bahá'í teachings on marriage call it a fortress for well-being and salvation and place marriage and the family as the foundation of the structure of human society.[67] Bahá'u'lláh highly praised marriage, declaring it an eternal command of God, also discouraging divorce and homosexuality, and requiring chastity outside of marriage; Bahá'u'lláh taught that a husband and wife should strive to improve the spiritual life of each other.[68] Interracial marriage is also highly praised throughout Bahá'í scripture.[67]

Bahá'ís intending to marry are asked to obtain a thorough understanding of the other's character before deciding to marry.[67][69] Although parents should not choose partners for their children, once two individuals decide to marry, they must receive the consent of all living biological parents, even if one partner is not a Bahá'í. The Bahá'í marriage ceremony is simple; the only compulsory part of the wedding is the reading of the wedding vows prescribed by Bahá'u'lláh which both the groom and the bride read, in the presence of two witnesses.[67] The vows are "We will all, verily, abide by the Will of God."[67][70]

Work
Monasticism is forbidden, and Bahá'ís attempt to ground their spirituality in ordinary daily life. Performing useful work, for example, is not only required but considered a form of worship.[11] Bahá'u'lláh prohibited a mendicant and ascetic lifestyle,[71] encouraging Bahá'ís to "Be anxiously concerned" with the needs of society.[72] The importance of self-exertion and service to humanity in one's spiritual life is emphasised further in Bahá'u'lláh's writings, where he states that work done in the spirit of service to humanity enjoys a rank equal to that of prayer and worship in the sight of God.[11]

Places of worship

Bahá'í House of Worship, Langenhain, GermanyMain article: Bahá'í House of Worship
Most Bahá'í meetings occur in individuals' homes, local Bahá'í centers, or rented facilities. Worldwide, there are currently seven Bahá'í Houses of Worship with an eighth under construction in Chile.[73] Bahá'í writings refer to an institution called a "Mashriqu'l-Adhkár" (Dawning-place of the Mention of God), which is to form the center of a complex of institutions including a hospital, university, and so on.[74] The first ever Mashriqu'l-Adhkár in `Ishqábád, Turkmenistan, has been the most complete House of Worship.[75]

Calendar
Main article: Bahá'í calendar
The Bahá'í calendar is based upon the calendar established by the Báb. The year consists of 19 months, each having 19 days, with four or five intercalary days, to make a full solar year.[3] The Bahá'í New Year corresponds to the traditional Persian New Year, called Naw Rúz, and occurs on the vernal equinox, March 21, at the end of the month of fasting. Bahá'í communities gather at the beginning of each month at a meeting called a Feast for worship, consultation and socializing.[11]

Each of the 19 months is given a name which is an attribute of God; some examples include Bahá’ (Splendour), ‘Ilm (Knowledge), and Jamál (Beauty).[76] The Bahá'í week is familiar in that it consists of seven days, with each day of the week also named after an attribute of God. Bahá'ís observe 11 Holy Days throughout the year, with work suspended on 9 of these. These days commemorate important anniversaries in the history of the religion.[76]

Symbols

The calligraphy of the Greatest NameMain article: Bahá'í symbols
The symbols of the religion are derived from the Arabic word Bahá’ (بهاء "splendor" or "glory"), with a numerical value of 9, which is why the most common symbol is the nine-pointed star.[77][78] The ringstone symbol and calligraphy of the Greatest Name are also often encountered. The former consists of two stars interspersed with a stylized Bahá’ whose shape is meant to recall the three onenesses,[79] while the latter is a calligraphic rendering of the phrase Yá Bahá'u'l-Abhá (يا بهاء الأبهى "O Glory of the Most Glorious!").

United Nations

Bahá'í gardens in Haifa, Israel.Bahá'u'lláh wrote of the need for world government in this age of humanity's collective life. Because of this emphasis the international Bahá'í community has chosen to support efforts of improving international relations through organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations, with some reservations about the present structure and constitution of the UN.[80] The Bahá'í International Community is an agency under the direction of the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, and has consultative status with the following organizations:[81][82]

United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
World Health Organization (WHO)
United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
The Bahá'í International Community has offices at the United Nations in New York and Geneva and representations to United Nations regional commissions and other offices in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Nairobi, Rome, Santiago, and Vienna.[82] In recent years an Office of the Environment and an Office for the Advancement of Women were established as part of its United Nations Office. The Bahá'í Faith has also undertaken joint development programs with various other United Nations agencies. In the 2000 Millennium Forum of the United Nations a Bahá'í was invited as the only non-governmental speaker during the summit.[83] See this article for further information on the relationship between the Bahá'í International Community and the United Nations.

Persecution
Main article: Persecution of Bahá'ís

The Bahá'í cemetery in Yazd after its desecration by the governmentBahá'ís continue to be persecuted in Islamic countries, as Islamic Leaders do not recognize the Bahá'í Faith as an independent religion, but rather as apostasy from Islam. The most severe persecutions have occurred in Iran, where over 200 Bahá'ís were executed between 1978 and 1998,[58] and in Egypt. The rights of Bahá'ís have been restricted in numerous other countries, including Afghanistan, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Indonesia,[84] Iraq, Morocco, and several countries in sub-Saharan Africa.[85]

Iran
The marginalization of the Iranian Bahá'ís by current governments is rooted in historical efforts by Shi`a clergy to persecute the religious minority. When the Báb started attracting a large following, the clergy hoped to stop the movement from spreading by stating that its followers were enemies of God, and these led to mob attacks and public executions.[37] Starting in the twentieth century, in addition to repression that impacted individual Bahá'ís, centrally-directed campaigns that targeted the entire Bahá'í community and institutions were initiated.[86] In one case in Yazd in 1903 more than 100 Bahá'ís were killed.[87] Later on Bahá'í schools, such as the Tarbiyat boys' and girl's schools in Tehran, were closed in the 1930s and 40s, Bahá'í marriages were not recognized and Bahá'í texts were censored.[86][88]

During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, due to the growing nationalism and the economic difficulties in the country, the Shah gave up control over certain religious affairs to the clergy of the country. This resulted in a campaign of persecution against the Bahá'ís.[89] They approved and coordinated the anti-Bahá'í campaign to incite public passion against the Bahá'ís started in 1955 and included the spreading of anti-Bahá'í propaganda in national radio stations and official newspapers.[86] In the late 1970s the Shah's regime, due to criticism that he was pro-Western, consistently lost legitimacy. As the anti-Shah movement gained ground and support, revolutionary propaganda was spread that some of the Shah's advisors were Bahá'ís.[90] Bahá'ís were portrayed as economic threats, supporters of Israel and the West and popular hatred for the Bahá'ís increased.[86][91]

Since the Islamic Revolution of 1979 Iranian Bahá'ís have regularly had their homes ransacked or been banned from attending university or holding government jobs, and several hundred have received prison sentences for their religious beliefs, most recently for participating in study circles.[58] Bahá'í cemeteries have been desecrated and property seized and occasionally demolished, including the House of Mírzá Buzurg, Bahá'u'lláh's father.[37] The House of the Báb in Shiraz, one of three sites to which Bahá'ís perform pilgrimage, has been destroyed twice.[37][92][93]

According to a US panel, attacks on Bahá'ís in Iran have increased since Mahmoud Ahmadinejad became president.[94] The United Nations Commission on Human Rights revealed an October 2005 confidential letter from Command Headquarters of the Armed Forces of Iran to identify Bahá'ís and to monitor their activities.[95] Due to these actions, the Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights stated on March 20, 2006, that she "also expresses concern that the information gained as a result of such monitoring will be used as a basis for the increased persecution of, and discrimination against, members of the Bahá'í faith, in violation of international standards… The Special Rapporteur is concerned that this latest development indicates that the situation with regard to religious minorities in Iran is, in fact, deteriorating."[95] On May 14, 2008, members of an informal body known as the Friends that oversaw the needs of the Bahá'í community in Iran were arrested and taken to Evin prison.[94][96] On 17 February 2009 IRNA news agency reported about this case that "next week, an indictment will be issued and will be discussed in court".[97]

Egypt
Bahá'í institutions and community activities have been illegal under Egyptian law since 1960.[98][99] All Bahá'í community properties, including Bahá'í centers, libraries, and cemeteries, have been confiscated by the government and fatwas have been issued charging Bahá'ís with apostasy.[98]

The Egyptian identification card controversy began in the 1990s when the government modernized the electronic processing of identity documents, which introduced a de facto requirement that documents must list the person's religion as Muslim, Christian, or Jewish (the only three religions officially recognized by the government). Consequently, Bahá'ís were unable to obtain government identification documents (such as national identification cards, birth certificates, death certificates, marriage or divorce certificates, or passports) necessary to exercise their rights in their country unless they lied about their religion, which conflicts with Bahá'í religious principle.[100] Without documents, they could not be employed, educated, treated in hospitals, travel outside of the country, or vote, among other hardships.[100] Following a protracted legal process culminating in a court ruling favorable to the Bahá'ís, the interior minister of Egypt released a decree on April 14, 2009, amending the law to allow Egyptians who are not Muslim, Christian, or Jewish to obtain identification documents that list dash in place of one of the three recognized religions.[101] The first identification cards were issued to two Bahá'ís under the new decree on August 8, 2009.[102]

Reactions
Bernard Lewis states that the Muslim laity and Islamic authorities have always had great difficulty in accommodating post-Islamic monotheistic religions such as the Bahá'í Faith, since the followers of such religions cannot be dismissed either as benighted heathens, like the polytheists of Asia and the animists of Africa, nor as outdated precursors, like the Jews and Christians. Moreover, their very existence presents a challenge to the Islamic doctrine of the perfection and finality of Muhammad's revelation.[103]

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism (zô'rōăs'trēənĭzəm), religion founded by Zoroaster, but with many later accretions.
Scriptures

Zoroastrianism's scriptures are the Avesta or the Zend Avesta [Pahlavi avesta=law, zend=commentary]. The Avesta consists of fragmentary and much-corrupted texts; it is written in old Iranian, a language similar to Vedic Sanskrit. The major sections of the Avesta are four-the Yasna, a liturgical work that includes the Gathas ("songs"), probably the oldest part of the Avesta and perhaps in part written by Zoroaster himself; the Vispered, a supplement to the Yasna; the Yashts, hymns of praise, including the Khurda ("little") Avesta; and the Videvdat, a detailed code of ritual purification, often erroneously called the Vendidad. Other sources of information on Zoroastrianism are Achaemenid inscriptions, the writings of Herodotus, Strabo, and Plutarch, and the commentaries on the Avesta written (6th cent. A.D.) in Pahlavi, a Persian dialect used as a priestly language, under the Sassanids.

Origins and Beliefs

In its origins Zoroastrianism appears to have been the religious expression of the peaceful, sedentary communities of N Iran as opposed to the animistic polytheism of their enemies, the nomadic horsemen. Zoroaster consistently contrasts these two peoples as the People of Righteousness (asha) and the People of the Lie (druj). The religion was concerned with increasing the harvest and with protecting and treating kindly the domestic animals whose labors accomplished the production of food.

Gradually certain practices that Zoroaster appears to have deplored, such as the use of haoma (a narcotic intoxicant) in prayer and the sacrifice of bulls in connection with the cult of the god Mithra (a lesser god in Zoroastrianism), became features of the religion. It is not surprising, however, that former customs should be thus revived, because Zoroaster appears to have incorporated in his religion the old Persian pantheon, although very much refined. Instead of tolerating the worship of all the deities, however, he divided them into those who were beneficent and truthful and those whose malevolence and falseness made them abhorrent.

Heading the good spirits was Ahura Mazdah (also Ormazd or Ormuzd) [sovereign knowledge], in primitive Zoroastrianism the only god. Six attendant deities, the Amesha Spentas, surround him. These abstract representations, formerly the personal aspects of Ahura Mazdah, are Vohu Manah [good thought], Asha Vahista [highest righteousness], Khshathra Vairya [divine kingdom], Spenta Armaiti [pious devotion], Haurvatat [salvation], and Ameretat [immortality]. In time the Amesha Spentas became archangelic in character and less abstract. Opposing the good ahuras were the evil spirits, the daevas or divs, led by Ahriman. The war between these two supernatural hosts is the subject matter of the fully developed cosmogony and eschatology of Zoroastrianism.

The entire history of the universe, past, present, and future, the religion teaches, is divided into four periods, each of 3,000 years. In the first period there was no matter; the second preceded the coming of Zoroaster; and in the third his faith is propagated. The struggle between good and evil rages during the first nine millennia, and humans help Ahura Mazdah or Ahriman according to whether their conduct is good or evil. Each person after death crosses the Chinvato Peretav [bridge of the separator], which spans hell. If he is reprobate, the bridge narrows and he tumbles to perdition, but if he is worthy of salvation he finds a wide road to the realm of light. In the fourth period of the universe a savior, Saoshyant, will appear, the dead will rise for their final reward or punishment, and good will reign eternally.

Zoroastrianism should be regarded as quasi-dualistic, rather than (as sometimes described) wholly dualistic, since it predicts the ultimate triumph of Ahura Mazdah. This god may be represented in the form of the pure natural substances that he has created, notably fire but also water and earth. The special veneration shown to fire and its use in religious ceremonies has led to the erroneous belief that the Zoroastrians were fire worshipers. The care taken to avoid contaminating these natural substances led to great elaboration of the purification ritual.

History

The religion's priests, successors to the pre-Zoroastrian Magi, acquired great power by their command of the techniques of purification. The priests also had great influence on the government in the first period of Zoroastrianism, that under the Achaemenids, when it was for a time the state religion. Alexander's conquest of Persia and the collapse of the Achaemenids destroyed the privileged position of Zoroastrianism. Little is known of the religion for the next 500 years, except that an offshoot, Mithraism (stemming from the worship of Mithra), was taking hold farther west. Zoroastrianism reemerged (c.A.D. 226) under Ardashir I, who established the Sassanid dynasty and fostered a general revival of Achaemenian culture. For four centuries Zoroastrianism was the state religion of the Sassanids, and it successfully met the challenge of nascent Christianity and, later, of heretical Manichaeism. In the mid-7th cent. Persia fell to Islam, and Zoroastrianism largely disappeared. The Parsis of India, centered on Mumbai, probably form the largest group of modern Zoroastrians, who are estimated to number between 124,000 and 190,000. Estimates of the number of persons (concentrated in Yazd, Tehran, and Kerman) who practice the religion in Iran today vary widely. Zoroastrianism affected Judaism (particularly during the time of the Captivity) and, through Gnosticism, Christianity.

Islam

Major world religion founded by Muhammad in Arabia in the early 7th century AD. The Arabic word islam means "surrender" — specifically, surrender to the will of the one God, called Allah in Arabic. Islam is a strictly monotheistic religion, and its adherents, called Muslims, regard the Prophet Muhammad as the last and most perfect of God's messengers, who include Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and others. The sacred scripture of Islam is the Qur'an, which contains God's revelations to Muhammad. The sayings and deeds of the Prophet recounted in the sunna are also an important source of belief and practice in Islam. The religious obligations of all Muslims are summed up in the Five Pillars of Islam, which include belief in God and his Prophet and obligations of prayer, charity, pilgrimage, and fasting. The fundamental concept in Islam is the Shari'ah, or Law, which embraces the total way of life commanded by God. Observant Muslims pray five times a day and join in community worship on Fridays at the mosque, where worship is led by an imam. Every believer is required to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, the holiest city, at least once in a lifetime, barring poverty or physical incapacity. The month of Ramadan is set aside for fasting. Alcohol and pork are always forbidden, as are gambling, usury, fraud, slander, and the making of images. In addition to celebrating the breaking of the fast of Ramadan, Muslims celebrate Muhammad's birthday (see mawlid) and his ascension into heaven (see mi'raj). The 'Id al-Adha festival inaugurates the season of pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims are enjoined to defend Islam against unbelievers through jihad. Divisions occurred early in Islam, brought about by disputes over the succession to the caliphate (see caliph). About 90% of Muslims belong to the Sunnite branch. The Shi'ites broke away in the 7th century and later gave rise to other sects, including the Isma'ilis. Another significant element in Islam is the mysticism known as Sufism. Since the 19th century the concept of the Islamic community has inspired Muslim peoples to cast off Western colonial rule, and in the late 20th century fundamentalist movements (see Islamic fundamentalism) threatened or toppled a number of secular Middle Eastern governments. In the early 21st century, there were more than 1.2 billion Muslims in the world.

Christianity

Major world religion which arose out of Judaism. Christians believe that Jesus of Nazareth (first cent. CE) fulfilled the prophetic predictions of the Hebrew Bible as the Christ, a Greek term which translates the Hebrew Mashi'ah (literally, the anointed; figuratively, savior, Messiah). As portrayed in the New Testament, Jesus was the son of Mary, a Jewish virgin whose miraculous conception of Jesus was caused by the Holy Spirit. Jesus attracted a number of Jewish followers (apostles) with his preaching, which called for repentance in anticipation of the long-awaited "Kingdom of Heaven." He criticized the two major Jewish religio-socio-economic parties, the Sadducees and the Pharisees, but seems to have shared many ideas with both groups, especially the Pharisees, and observed the commandments ordained in the Hebrew Scriptures. His "messianic" activity, which was seen as a political threat both to the Roman government in Erets Israel and to the Jewish authorities, led to his crucifixion. Jesus' disappointed disciples were able to reinterpret his messianic calling, giving it spiritual rather than political content, thereby keeping Jesus' movement alive---initially as a Jewish sect---until it developed fully into Christianity.
All the first Christians were Jewish followers of Jesus who believed that he had risen from the dead and would imminently return. Under the influence of Paul of Tarsus (a Jew who was originally an opponent of Christianity), the new religion expanded to include Gentiles who considered themselves free of the obligation to observe the commandments. Scholars are divided as to when the final break between the two religions occurred, but it was probably some time in the second century as Gentile Christianity became the dominant part of the religion. Eventually, the Jewish-Christians became a small minority among Christians, despised by Jews for being Christians and by Christians for being Jews. They survived for a few centuries.

Early Christians were persecuted by the Romans, but, in the fourth century, the Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official Roman religion. From that time on, Jews who lived under Christian governments were subjected to persecution, discrimination, attempts at conversion, expulsions, and massacres. Many Christians believed that the continued existence of the Jews as a separate, legitimate religious entity called into question the truth of Christianity as the successor religion to biblical Israel. They also accused the entire Jewish people with the crime of "deicide," i.e., killing God, (i.e., Jesus) because of the New Testament account of Jewish complicity in the crucifixion. Therefore, while Christians generally recognized the right of Jews to observe their own religion in the hope that they would eventually convert to Christianity, attempts were made to guarantee that a secondary status for Jews was maintained, as if their depressed condition were evidence of Divine displeasure. Christian anti-Semitic theory and practice have been major factors in Jewish history. Anti-Jewish stereotypes, even identifying Jews with the devil, became deeply ingrained in the Christians consciousness.

While there are many forms of both Judaism and Christianity, the differences between classical Judaism and classical Christianity may be summarized as follows:

(1) Judaism conceives of God's unity as absolute, with no internal distinction; Christianity maintains a Divine Trinity of three Persons, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, all of whom are God, even though the Father generated the Son, and the Father and Son together (according to Western Christianity) caused the procession of the Spirit.

(2) For Judaism, God is incorporeal and can never be visible in human form; while agreeing that God is incorporeal, Christianity sees in Jesus the incarnation (embodiment) of the second Person of the Trinity, the Son.

(3) Although Judaism contains certain concepts of original sin, the preponderance of Jewish opinion holds that individuals can achieve salvation through their own effort; Christianity holds that the sinful nature of humanity, caused by the original sin of Adam, prevents salvation without the intermediacy of the sacrifice of the Divine-human Messiah.

(4) The Jewish concept of the Messiah is generally a political one: when he comes in the future, he will be a human descendant of David who restores the monarchy, rebuilds the Temple, and gathers in the Jewish exiles from the Diaspora; for Christians, while Jesus the Messiah was fully human, the son of Mary and descendant of David, he was also fully God, and his task was humanity's redemption from the original sin of Adam.

(5) Judaism maintains that the covenant between God and the People of Israel embodied in the Hebrew Scriptures is eternally valid and not to be superseded; observance of the commandments, as understood through talmudic legislation, is necessary for the personal salvation of the Jews. Christianity believes in a second covenant, between God and all humanity, recorded in the New Testament (as contrasted to the Hebrew "Old Testament") and pronounced by the mission of the Divine-human person of Jesus; salvation (available to all humanity) depends on belief in Jesus as the Christ/Messiah, not on observance of the commandments.

(6) Since Christians see themselves as the recipients of the new covenant, they believe that they are the true spiritual descendants of Abraham and deserve the name Israel; Jews maintain that they remain the "true Israel," being both the physical and spiritual heirs of Abraham.

Historically, Jews have been the objects of Christian missionaries, who attempted to demonstrate that the Christian approach to the issues outlined above is the correct one. Converted Jews who knew Jewish literature and tradition often stood in the forefront of the conversion campaigns. Jews, for their part, maintained that Christianity was a false religion, contradicted by the simple words of the Bible and by human reason. Both Jews and Christians wrote polemical works; Jewish anti-Christian compositions included detailed refutations of Christian doctrines and were intended to provide answers to the Christian attack on Judaism. While these works rarely represent the most sophisticated theological thinking of either side, they do indicate the state of popular religion as understood by both advocates and opponents of the two religions (see Apologetics and Polemics).

While the Christian mission to the Jews was usually low-key, it frequently took on violent forms, and forced conversions were not an uncommon feature of Jewish-Christian relations. An additional distinctive earmark of the Jewish-Christian conflict in the Middle Ages was the Disputation, a public debate held between representatives of the two religions (most notably in Paris, 1240; Barcelona, 1263; and Tortosa, 1413-14). These were usually stage-managed affairs with the anti-Jewish results known in advance. Often the local Christian rulers used such occasions for their internal political purposes. In the modern period, Jews and Christians have often met on more equal terms engaging in dialogue rather than in disputation (see Interfaith Relations).

Despite the history of antagonism between Judaism and Christianity, there were often cultural exchanges and mutual influences between the religions. Early Christianity adopted many distinctive Jewish beliefs and practices, such as prayers and baptism, while, at the same time, it was heavily affected by Greek paganism. Medieval Jews were instrumental in the transfer of Greek learning in its Arabic form to Christian Europe. The works of Maimonides were used by a number of Christian thinkers, including Thomas Aquinas. Christianity, for its part, influenced Judaism, both in the area of popular religious practices and in theology, mainly, but not only, in regard to Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah). The influence of Christianity on Judaism has been especially pronounced in the modern period in Western countries as Jews began to evaluate Christianity more positively and were more willing to borrow consciously from it.

Judaism has traditionally had an ambivalent attitude towards Christians and Christianity. Since Christianity claimed to be the true Israel and heir to the biblical tradition, Jews naturally regarded it as an illegitimate usurper. The Christian beliefs in trinity and incarnation, as well as the cultic use of images, were often seen as proof that Christianity is another form of Idolatry. In addition, living under Christian persecution caused many Jews to have an extremely negative view of the majority religion. On the other hand, many Jews were able to distinguish favorably between Christian trinitarian monotheism and idolatrous polytheism. Some (notably Judah Halevi and Maimonides) have even seen positive aspects to the spread of Christianity (and Islam), believing that it would help prepare the world for the eventual advent of the true Messiah. Still others, e.g., Franz Rosenzweig, taught that Christianity is the proper way for Gentiles to worship God.

In recent years, many Christians have come to realize that Christian beliefs have often nurtured Anti-Semitism, and were among the factors leading to the Holocaust. The Catholic Church has issued proclamations condemning anti-Semitism and declaring that contemporary Jews are not to be considered guilty of deicide. Catholics and liberal Protestants now rarely seek to convert Jews and have revised anti-Judaism in the prayers and catechisms, but evangelical Protestants continue their missionary activity, and such groups as "Jews for Jesus" are an integral part of their campaign (see Cults). In general, the evangelical groups have been very supportive of the State of Israel because of their messianic beliefs and eschatological timetable, while Catholics and liberal Protestants have been much less approving. The Eastern Orthodox churches have not changed their teachings concerning the Jews and Judaism and retain traditional prejudices.

Judaism

The religion of the Jews, characterized by: (1) its monotheism; (2) its belief in a special covenant with God making it his ‘chosen people’; (3) ethnic and territorial identity (the ‘promised land’); (4) specific laws and practices; and (5) Messianism.

Its origin dates either from Abraham's covenant with God or Moses' formulation of monotheism and of the laws attributed to him included in the Pentateuch. However, political Judaism is most closely associated with King David, who set up his capital in Judah and planned the temple of Jerusalem, built by his son Solomon. During the Babylonian captivity (586-538 bc) Judaism was consolidated and the Mosaic law was written down.

As befits a theocracy the distinction between divine and civil law is blurred. God is the supreme power and his command is law, be it religious or civil—a view shared by Islamic fundamentalists. Mosaic law (torah) was fixed by the fifth century BC. It was interpreted by the Talmud and the Midrash. The Talmud includes religious and civil laws not in the Torah proper, and gives explanations of them.

Unlike the Talmud, the Midrash keeps close to scripture and is exegetical. It covers a period from at least the second till the twelfth centuries ad. It consists of (a) the Halakah, a collection of traditional laws and minor precepts not in other written law, and (b) the Haggadah, free interpretation of scripture consisting of parable stories and other non-prescriptive material, used exclusively at Seder, the initial ritual of the Passover.

The high priest was usually the head of state and administered both religious and civil law, though, as in the Maccabean (Hasmonean) dynasty, there were kings. Rabbis were both interpreters of the law and civil judges. The scribes fixed the text of the law and recorded interpretations as they occurred through time. The Pharisees were a sect that devoted themselves to the exact observance of oral and written law. While the Babylonian captivity tended to unite the Jews, the Roman occupation of Palestine, the Herodian dynasty, and finally the destruction of the temple in ad 70 led to the dispersion of the Jews. Fragmentation accompanied dispersion, from the extremes of fundamentalism (Karaites who reject rabbinical tradition and rely on scripture alone) and orthodoxy, to rationalism, either purely philosophical or a mixture of philosophy and Talmudic and rabbinical tradition.

By the seventh century AD Palestine had been occupied by the Muslims. During the Middle Ages Jews spread throughout Europe, west, and east. For the most part they lived in enclaves (ghettos) and from time to time were persecuted, and at best tolerated and protected.

anti-Semitism became politically prominent 1894 when Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jewish army officer, was wrongly convicted of spying for the Germans and deported to Devil's Island. 1896 Theodor Herzl wrote a book, Der Judenstaat, advocating a Jewish homeland in Palestine. 1897 he organized the first Zionist Congress to further this aim. 1917 the British minister Arthur Balfour promised the British Zionist Federation that when Palestine was liberated from the Turks limited quotas of Jews could settle there. From 1920 to 1948 Palestine was under British mandate. During this time increasing numbers of Jews availed themselves of the Balfour Declaration. This influx was accelerated during and after the Second World War as a result of the Nazi persecution of the Jews in occupied Europe. The state of Israel was established with the blessing of the UN in 1948. The Jews had returned to part of their homeland, but the state was secular, not a theocracy, and Jerusalem was divided.

Hinduism

Hinduism is the dominant philosophical system of India and of the Indonesian island of Bali. Hindu is a word derived etymologically from the Persian pronunciation of the Sanskrit sindhu, meaning “river” and referring to the Indus River Valley or India itself. Hinduism is more a flow of traditions, practices, and customs than it is a religion in the usual sense of the word. Unlike Buddhism (see Buddhism), Jainism (see Jainism), and Sikhism (see Sikhism), all of which are tributaries of Hinduism, Hinduism can point to no particular founder. If there is a dominant characteristic of Hinduism it is its ability and willingness to absorb all physical and philosophical experience and all gods and goddesses in a happy polytheism (see Hindu Mythology). It is true, however, that in practice, many Hindus tend to concentrate their worship on one of three particular deities—Śiva (see Śiva), Viṣṇu (see Viṣṇu), or the Goddess (see Devī). And in a mysterious way, with its all-encompassing absolute Brahman (see Brahman), Hinduism might be said to be ultimately monist, at least to some schools of thought (see Advaita Vedānta).

The beginning of an understanding of the complexities of Hinduism requires a historical context. Perhaps the earliest source of Hinduism was the religion of the Indus Valley (see Indus Valley Mythology) people of the Neolithic, before the invasion of Aryan (see Aryans) peoples from the north. The Indus Valley culture is sometimes referred to as Dravidian (see Dravidians), after the language probably spoken by the people there, or Harappan after one of the two major cities in the area. Indus Valley archeological evidence suggests a goddess-dominated religion with composite human-animal male figures, a tradition of ritual purification in pools, and a system of ritual sacrifice. Ancient seals depict an ithyphallic yogi-like figure with buffalo horns, a figure mirrored in later Hindu representations of the great god Śiva. The dominance of the Goddess is reflected in later Hinduism's emphasis on the various forms of Devī.

The Aryans, who arrived perhaps as early as about 1500 BCE, brought with them an Indo-European religious system and pantheon that bears much resemblance to the patriarchal systems of other Indo-Europeans such as the Greeks and the Iranians. They also brought the beginnings of what would become the characteristic Hindu caste system, a system that would be dominated by the two upper classes—the priestly brahmans (see Brahmans) and the warrior kśtriyas. Preclassical Hinduism or Vedism is expressed most fully in the sacred knowledge called Vedas (see Vedas, Vedic entries), characterized as Śruti or “that which is heard” (see Śruti). First transmitted orally, the Vedas were eventually transcribed—traditionally by the sage Vyāsa (see Vyāsa), who was also said to have written down the great Hindu epic the Mahābhārata (see Mahābhārata). The Vedas developed over many centuries and are made up of several kinds of texts. First are the four Saṃhitās (collections): the ancient ṛg Veda or “chant Veda” (see ṛg Veda), the Sāma Veda and the Yajur Veda (liturgical Vedas), and the Athara Veda (“Atharavan's Veda”). Offshoots of the Vedic texts were developed by schools of Vedic priests. These texts are called Brāhmaṇas (see Brāhmaṇas), Āraṇyakas (see Āraṇyakas), and Upaniśads (see Upaniṣads). The Brāhmaṇas, the most important of which is the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, are expositions of the absolute Brahman by priests or brahmans (see Brahmans), and are concerned with the proper practice of rituals. In the Brāhmaṇas the ṛ g Veda one-time only world-forming sacrifice of the transcendent primal male Puruṣa (see Puruṣa) is essentially replaced by the cyclical death and resurrection sacrifice of Prajāpati (see Prajāpati), himself the source of the creator god Brahmā (see Brahmā), in a sense, a personification of the absolute Brahman. The original Puruṣa would evolve into the person of the god Viṣṇu. The theology that emerges from the Brāhmaṇas is called Brahmanism (see Brahmanism).

The Āraṇyakas (“books of the forest”) are more mystical texts, centering on the inner life and the universal Brahman. They precede the Upaniśads (“mystical understandings”), which move away from Brahmanic teachings about proper ritual to a belief that the individual must seek mokṣa (see Mokṣa), or “release” from the life death continuum or saṃsāra (see Saṃsāra). To achieve mokṣa the disciple must learn—perhaps from a guru—the connection between the transcendent absolute or Brahman and the inner absolute Ātman (see Ātman). It is important to understand that the concept of life and the universe as developed in Vedic philosophy is the essence of Hinduism.

During the eight or nine hundred years after the late Vedic Upaniśads—that is, from about 500 BCE—the great epics the Mahābhārata (see Mahābhārata), including and especially its Bhagavadgītā (see Bhagavadgītā) section of about 200 BCE, and the Rāmāyaṇa (see Rāmāyaṇa) play important roles in the development of a Hinduism dominated by the concepts of bhakti (see bhakti), or “devotion,” and dharma (see Dharma), or “duty.” Much mythical material of this classical Hinduism is also contained in works called Purāṇas (see Purāṇas), or “ancient stories,” written between 400 and 1200 CE (see Hindu Mythology, Tantrism). The epics and the Purāṇas come under the category of smṛti (see Smṛti), “that which is remembered,” rather than the more sacred sṛuti. If the epics and Purāṇas take what might be called mythological liberties, they are, nevertheless, firmly based in Vedic tradition and philosophy. The epics and the Purāṇas are, like the Upaniśads, concerned with paths to salvation or mokṣa. They are also primary sources for Hindu mythology, which is important for everyday “popular” Hinduism.

Several schools of Hinduism have emerged during the many centuries in which attempts have been made to consolidate the many streams of the overall tradition into one “flow.” Of these schools, two have achieved a certain dominance or orthodoxy. Both base their teachings on the Vedic philosophy, but the Mīmāṃsā school stresses the ritual tradition of the Vedas, while the Vedānta (see Vedānta, Advaita Vedānta) school emphasizes the more mystical understandings of the Upaniśads. It must be emphasized, too, that many Hindus are particularly devoted to one of three deities, Śiva, Viṣṇu, and Devī, in their several forms or, in the case of Viṣṇu, avatars (see Avatars of Viṣṇu) or even to lesser deities such as Gaṇeśa (see GaṇeṣBa).

It is tempting for adherents of monotheistic traditions to see all of the Hindu gods as incarnations of the one Absolute or Brahman, and in a sense they are. But Brahman is not “God” in any personal sense. Still, at the level of creation there is a trimūrti of gods working as one being and as aspects of that one Absolute. Brahmā (see Brahmā) is the creator, Śiva the destroyer, and Viṣṇu the preserver. These three roles are important at several levels, the most important of which is the Hindu understanding of the cosmic sacrificial cycles or yugas (see yugas), the throws of the cosmic dice of existence, whereby the universe is destroyed and re-created over and over again. It should be noted, too, that even by the last books of the ṛg Veda the gods seem to take on the characteristics of each other, depending on the context of the hymn in question. One has the distinct sense in Hinduism that a single supreme Absolute expresses itself in many forms or gods.