Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism (zô'rōăs'trēənĭzəm), religion founded by Zoroaster, but with many later accretions.
Scriptures

Zoroastrianism's scriptures are the Avesta or the Zend Avesta [Pahlavi avesta=law, zend=commentary]. The Avesta consists of fragmentary and much-corrupted texts; it is written in old Iranian, a language similar to Vedic Sanskrit. The major sections of the Avesta are four-the Yasna, a liturgical work that includes the Gathas ("songs"), probably the oldest part of the Avesta and perhaps in part written by Zoroaster himself; the Vispered, a supplement to the Yasna; the Yashts, hymns of praise, including the Khurda ("little") Avesta; and the Videvdat, a detailed code of ritual purification, often erroneously called the Vendidad. Other sources of information on Zoroastrianism are Achaemenid inscriptions, the writings of Herodotus, Strabo, and Plutarch, and the commentaries on the Avesta written (6th cent. A.D.) in Pahlavi, a Persian dialect used as a priestly language, under the Sassanids.

Origins and Beliefs

In its origins Zoroastrianism appears to have been the religious expression of the peaceful, sedentary communities of N Iran as opposed to the animistic polytheism of their enemies, the nomadic horsemen. Zoroaster consistently contrasts these two peoples as the People of Righteousness (asha) and the People of the Lie (druj). The religion was concerned with increasing the harvest and with protecting and treating kindly the domestic animals whose labors accomplished the production of food.

Gradually certain practices that Zoroaster appears to have deplored, such as the use of haoma (a narcotic intoxicant) in prayer and the sacrifice of bulls in connection with the cult of the god Mithra (a lesser god in Zoroastrianism), became features of the religion. It is not surprising, however, that former customs should be thus revived, because Zoroaster appears to have incorporated in his religion the old Persian pantheon, although very much refined. Instead of tolerating the worship of all the deities, however, he divided them into those who were beneficent and truthful and those whose malevolence and falseness made them abhorrent.

Heading the good spirits was Ahura Mazdah (also Ormazd or Ormuzd) [sovereign knowledge], in primitive Zoroastrianism the only god. Six attendant deities, the Amesha Spentas, surround him. These abstract representations, formerly the personal aspects of Ahura Mazdah, are Vohu Manah [good thought], Asha Vahista [highest righteousness], Khshathra Vairya [divine kingdom], Spenta Armaiti [pious devotion], Haurvatat [salvation], and Ameretat [immortality]. In time the Amesha Spentas became archangelic in character and less abstract. Opposing the good ahuras were the evil spirits, the daevas or divs, led by Ahriman. The war between these two supernatural hosts is the subject matter of the fully developed cosmogony and eschatology of Zoroastrianism.

The entire history of the universe, past, present, and future, the religion teaches, is divided into four periods, each of 3,000 years. In the first period there was no matter; the second preceded the coming of Zoroaster; and in the third his faith is propagated. The struggle between good and evil rages during the first nine millennia, and humans help Ahura Mazdah or Ahriman according to whether their conduct is good or evil. Each person after death crosses the Chinvato Peretav [bridge of the separator], which spans hell. If he is reprobate, the bridge narrows and he tumbles to perdition, but if he is worthy of salvation he finds a wide road to the realm of light. In the fourth period of the universe a savior, Saoshyant, will appear, the dead will rise for their final reward or punishment, and good will reign eternally.

Zoroastrianism should be regarded as quasi-dualistic, rather than (as sometimes described) wholly dualistic, since it predicts the ultimate triumph of Ahura Mazdah. This god may be represented in the form of the pure natural substances that he has created, notably fire but also water and earth. The special veneration shown to fire and its use in religious ceremonies has led to the erroneous belief that the Zoroastrians were fire worshipers. The care taken to avoid contaminating these natural substances led to great elaboration of the purification ritual.

History

The religion's priests, successors to the pre-Zoroastrian Magi, acquired great power by their command of the techniques of purification. The priests also had great influence on the government in the first period of Zoroastrianism, that under the Achaemenids, when it was for a time the state religion. Alexander's conquest of Persia and the collapse of the Achaemenids destroyed the privileged position of Zoroastrianism. Little is known of the religion for the next 500 years, except that an offshoot, Mithraism (stemming from the worship of Mithra), was taking hold farther west. Zoroastrianism reemerged (c.A.D. 226) under Ardashir I, who established the Sassanid dynasty and fostered a general revival of Achaemenian culture. For four centuries Zoroastrianism was the state religion of the Sassanids, and it successfully met the challenge of nascent Christianity and, later, of heretical Manichaeism. In the mid-7th cent. Persia fell to Islam, and Zoroastrianism largely disappeared. The Parsis of India, centered on Mumbai, probably form the largest group of modern Zoroastrians, who are estimated to number between 124,000 and 190,000. Estimates of the number of persons (concentrated in Yazd, Tehran, and Kerman) who practice the religion in Iran today vary widely. Zoroastrianism affected Judaism (particularly during the time of the Captivity) and, through Gnosticism, Christianity.

Islam

Major world religion founded by Muhammad in Arabia in the early 7th century AD. The Arabic word islam means "surrender" — specifically, surrender to the will of the one God, called Allah in Arabic. Islam is a strictly monotheistic religion, and its adherents, called Muslims, regard the Prophet Muhammad as the last and most perfect of God's messengers, who include Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and others. The sacred scripture of Islam is the Qur'an, which contains God's revelations to Muhammad. The sayings and deeds of the Prophet recounted in the sunna are also an important source of belief and practice in Islam. The religious obligations of all Muslims are summed up in the Five Pillars of Islam, which include belief in God and his Prophet and obligations of prayer, charity, pilgrimage, and fasting. The fundamental concept in Islam is the Shari'ah, or Law, which embraces the total way of life commanded by God. Observant Muslims pray five times a day and join in community worship on Fridays at the mosque, where worship is led by an imam. Every believer is required to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, the holiest city, at least once in a lifetime, barring poverty or physical incapacity. The month of Ramadan is set aside for fasting. Alcohol and pork are always forbidden, as are gambling, usury, fraud, slander, and the making of images. In addition to celebrating the breaking of the fast of Ramadan, Muslims celebrate Muhammad's birthday (see mawlid) and his ascension into heaven (see mi'raj). The 'Id al-Adha festival inaugurates the season of pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims are enjoined to defend Islam against unbelievers through jihad. Divisions occurred early in Islam, brought about by disputes over the succession to the caliphate (see caliph). About 90% of Muslims belong to the Sunnite branch. The Shi'ites broke away in the 7th century and later gave rise to other sects, including the Isma'ilis. Another significant element in Islam is the mysticism known as Sufism. Since the 19th century the concept of the Islamic community has inspired Muslim peoples to cast off Western colonial rule, and in the late 20th century fundamentalist movements (see Islamic fundamentalism) threatened or toppled a number of secular Middle Eastern governments. In the early 21st century, there were more than 1.2 billion Muslims in the world.

Christianity

Major world religion which arose out of Judaism. Christians believe that Jesus of Nazareth (first cent. CE) fulfilled the prophetic predictions of the Hebrew Bible as the Christ, a Greek term which translates the Hebrew Mashi'ah (literally, the anointed; figuratively, savior, Messiah). As portrayed in the New Testament, Jesus was the son of Mary, a Jewish virgin whose miraculous conception of Jesus was caused by the Holy Spirit. Jesus attracted a number of Jewish followers (apostles) with his preaching, which called for repentance in anticipation of the long-awaited "Kingdom of Heaven." He criticized the two major Jewish religio-socio-economic parties, the Sadducees and the Pharisees, but seems to have shared many ideas with both groups, especially the Pharisees, and observed the commandments ordained in the Hebrew Scriptures. His "messianic" activity, which was seen as a political threat both to the Roman government in Erets Israel and to the Jewish authorities, led to his crucifixion. Jesus' disappointed disciples were able to reinterpret his messianic calling, giving it spiritual rather than political content, thereby keeping Jesus' movement alive---initially as a Jewish sect---until it developed fully into Christianity.
All the first Christians were Jewish followers of Jesus who believed that he had risen from the dead and would imminently return. Under the influence of Paul of Tarsus (a Jew who was originally an opponent of Christianity), the new religion expanded to include Gentiles who considered themselves free of the obligation to observe the commandments. Scholars are divided as to when the final break between the two religions occurred, but it was probably some time in the second century as Gentile Christianity became the dominant part of the religion. Eventually, the Jewish-Christians became a small minority among Christians, despised by Jews for being Christians and by Christians for being Jews. They survived for a few centuries.

Early Christians were persecuted by the Romans, but, in the fourth century, the Emperor Constantine made Christianity the official Roman religion. From that time on, Jews who lived under Christian governments were subjected to persecution, discrimination, attempts at conversion, expulsions, and massacres. Many Christians believed that the continued existence of the Jews as a separate, legitimate religious entity called into question the truth of Christianity as the successor religion to biblical Israel. They also accused the entire Jewish people with the crime of "deicide," i.e., killing God, (i.e., Jesus) because of the New Testament account of Jewish complicity in the crucifixion. Therefore, while Christians generally recognized the right of Jews to observe their own religion in the hope that they would eventually convert to Christianity, attempts were made to guarantee that a secondary status for Jews was maintained, as if their depressed condition were evidence of Divine displeasure. Christian anti-Semitic theory and practice have been major factors in Jewish history. Anti-Jewish stereotypes, even identifying Jews with the devil, became deeply ingrained in the Christians consciousness.

While there are many forms of both Judaism and Christianity, the differences between classical Judaism and classical Christianity may be summarized as follows:

(1) Judaism conceives of God's unity as absolute, with no internal distinction; Christianity maintains a Divine Trinity of three Persons, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, all of whom are God, even though the Father generated the Son, and the Father and Son together (according to Western Christianity) caused the procession of the Spirit.

(2) For Judaism, God is incorporeal and can never be visible in human form; while agreeing that God is incorporeal, Christianity sees in Jesus the incarnation (embodiment) of the second Person of the Trinity, the Son.

(3) Although Judaism contains certain concepts of original sin, the preponderance of Jewish opinion holds that individuals can achieve salvation through their own effort; Christianity holds that the sinful nature of humanity, caused by the original sin of Adam, prevents salvation without the intermediacy of the sacrifice of the Divine-human Messiah.

(4) The Jewish concept of the Messiah is generally a political one: when he comes in the future, he will be a human descendant of David who restores the monarchy, rebuilds the Temple, and gathers in the Jewish exiles from the Diaspora; for Christians, while Jesus the Messiah was fully human, the son of Mary and descendant of David, he was also fully God, and his task was humanity's redemption from the original sin of Adam.

(5) Judaism maintains that the covenant between God and the People of Israel embodied in the Hebrew Scriptures is eternally valid and not to be superseded; observance of the commandments, as understood through talmudic legislation, is necessary for the personal salvation of the Jews. Christianity believes in a second covenant, between God and all humanity, recorded in the New Testament (as contrasted to the Hebrew "Old Testament") and pronounced by the mission of the Divine-human person of Jesus; salvation (available to all humanity) depends on belief in Jesus as the Christ/Messiah, not on observance of the commandments.

(6) Since Christians see themselves as the recipients of the new covenant, they believe that they are the true spiritual descendants of Abraham and deserve the name Israel; Jews maintain that they remain the "true Israel," being both the physical and spiritual heirs of Abraham.

Historically, Jews have been the objects of Christian missionaries, who attempted to demonstrate that the Christian approach to the issues outlined above is the correct one. Converted Jews who knew Jewish literature and tradition often stood in the forefront of the conversion campaigns. Jews, for their part, maintained that Christianity was a false religion, contradicted by the simple words of the Bible and by human reason. Both Jews and Christians wrote polemical works; Jewish anti-Christian compositions included detailed refutations of Christian doctrines and were intended to provide answers to the Christian attack on Judaism. While these works rarely represent the most sophisticated theological thinking of either side, they do indicate the state of popular religion as understood by both advocates and opponents of the two religions (see Apologetics and Polemics).

While the Christian mission to the Jews was usually low-key, it frequently took on violent forms, and forced conversions were not an uncommon feature of Jewish-Christian relations. An additional distinctive earmark of the Jewish-Christian conflict in the Middle Ages was the Disputation, a public debate held between representatives of the two religions (most notably in Paris, 1240; Barcelona, 1263; and Tortosa, 1413-14). These were usually stage-managed affairs with the anti-Jewish results known in advance. Often the local Christian rulers used such occasions for their internal political purposes. In the modern period, Jews and Christians have often met on more equal terms engaging in dialogue rather than in disputation (see Interfaith Relations).

Despite the history of antagonism between Judaism and Christianity, there were often cultural exchanges and mutual influences between the religions. Early Christianity adopted many distinctive Jewish beliefs and practices, such as prayers and baptism, while, at the same time, it was heavily affected by Greek paganism. Medieval Jews were instrumental in the transfer of Greek learning in its Arabic form to Christian Europe. The works of Maimonides were used by a number of Christian thinkers, including Thomas Aquinas. Christianity, for its part, influenced Judaism, both in the area of popular religious practices and in theology, mainly, but not only, in regard to Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah). The influence of Christianity on Judaism has been especially pronounced in the modern period in Western countries as Jews began to evaluate Christianity more positively and were more willing to borrow consciously from it.

Judaism has traditionally had an ambivalent attitude towards Christians and Christianity. Since Christianity claimed to be the true Israel and heir to the biblical tradition, Jews naturally regarded it as an illegitimate usurper. The Christian beliefs in trinity and incarnation, as well as the cultic use of images, were often seen as proof that Christianity is another form of Idolatry. In addition, living under Christian persecution caused many Jews to have an extremely negative view of the majority religion. On the other hand, many Jews were able to distinguish favorably between Christian trinitarian monotheism and idolatrous polytheism. Some (notably Judah Halevi and Maimonides) have even seen positive aspects to the spread of Christianity (and Islam), believing that it would help prepare the world for the eventual advent of the true Messiah. Still others, e.g., Franz Rosenzweig, taught that Christianity is the proper way for Gentiles to worship God.

In recent years, many Christians have come to realize that Christian beliefs have often nurtured Anti-Semitism, and were among the factors leading to the Holocaust. The Catholic Church has issued proclamations condemning anti-Semitism and declaring that contemporary Jews are not to be considered guilty of deicide. Catholics and liberal Protestants now rarely seek to convert Jews and have revised anti-Judaism in the prayers and catechisms, but evangelical Protestants continue their missionary activity, and such groups as "Jews for Jesus" are an integral part of their campaign (see Cults). In general, the evangelical groups have been very supportive of the State of Israel because of their messianic beliefs and eschatological timetable, while Catholics and liberal Protestants have been much less approving. The Eastern Orthodox churches have not changed their teachings concerning the Jews and Judaism and retain traditional prejudices.

Judaism

The religion of the Jews, characterized by: (1) its monotheism; (2) its belief in a special covenant with God making it his ‘chosen people’; (3) ethnic and territorial identity (the ‘promised land’); (4) specific laws and practices; and (5) Messianism.

Its origin dates either from Abraham's covenant with God or Moses' formulation of monotheism and of the laws attributed to him included in the Pentateuch. However, political Judaism is most closely associated with King David, who set up his capital in Judah and planned the temple of Jerusalem, built by his son Solomon. During the Babylonian captivity (586-538 bc) Judaism was consolidated and the Mosaic law was written down.

As befits a theocracy the distinction between divine and civil law is blurred. God is the supreme power and his command is law, be it religious or civil—a view shared by Islamic fundamentalists. Mosaic law (torah) was fixed by the fifth century BC. It was interpreted by the Talmud and the Midrash. The Talmud includes religious and civil laws not in the Torah proper, and gives explanations of them.

Unlike the Talmud, the Midrash keeps close to scripture and is exegetical. It covers a period from at least the second till the twelfth centuries ad. It consists of (a) the Halakah, a collection of traditional laws and minor precepts not in other written law, and (b) the Haggadah, free interpretation of scripture consisting of parable stories and other non-prescriptive material, used exclusively at Seder, the initial ritual of the Passover.

The high priest was usually the head of state and administered both religious and civil law, though, as in the Maccabean (Hasmonean) dynasty, there were kings. Rabbis were both interpreters of the law and civil judges. The scribes fixed the text of the law and recorded interpretations as they occurred through time. The Pharisees were a sect that devoted themselves to the exact observance of oral and written law. While the Babylonian captivity tended to unite the Jews, the Roman occupation of Palestine, the Herodian dynasty, and finally the destruction of the temple in ad 70 led to the dispersion of the Jews. Fragmentation accompanied dispersion, from the extremes of fundamentalism (Karaites who reject rabbinical tradition and rely on scripture alone) and orthodoxy, to rationalism, either purely philosophical or a mixture of philosophy and Talmudic and rabbinical tradition.

By the seventh century AD Palestine had been occupied by the Muslims. During the Middle Ages Jews spread throughout Europe, west, and east. For the most part they lived in enclaves (ghettos) and from time to time were persecuted, and at best tolerated and protected.

anti-Semitism became politically prominent 1894 when Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jewish army officer, was wrongly convicted of spying for the Germans and deported to Devil's Island. 1896 Theodor Herzl wrote a book, Der Judenstaat, advocating a Jewish homeland in Palestine. 1897 he organized the first Zionist Congress to further this aim. 1917 the British minister Arthur Balfour promised the British Zionist Federation that when Palestine was liberated from the Turks limited quotas of Jews could settle there. From 1920 to 1948 Palestine was under British mandate. During this time increasing numbers of Jews availed themselves of the Balfour Declaration. This influx was accelerated during and after the Second World War as a result of the Nazi persecution of the Jews in occupied Europe. The state of Israel was established with the blessing of the UN in 1948. The Jews had returned to part of their homeland, but the state was secular, not a theocracy, and Jerusalem was divided.

Hinduism

Hinduism is the dominant philosophical system of India and of the Indonesian island of Bali. Hindu is a word derived etymologically from the Persian pronunciation of the Sanskrit sindhu, meaning “river” and referring to the Indus River Valley or India itself. Hinduism is more a flow of traditions, practices, and customs than it is a religion in the usual sense of the word. Unlike Buddhism (see Buddhism), Jainism (see Jainism), and Sikhism (see Sikhism), all of which are tributaries of Hinduism, Hinduism can point to no particular founder. If there is a dominant characteristic of Hinduism it is its ability and willingness to absorb all physical and philosophical experience and all gods and goddesses in a happy polytheism (see Hindu Mythology). It is true, however, that in practice, many Hindus tend to concentrate their worship on one of three particular deities—Śiva (see Śiva), Viṣṇu (see Viṣṇu), or the Goddess (see Devī). And in a mysterious way, with its all-encompassing absolute Brahman (see Brahman), Hinduism might be said to be ultimately monist, at least to some schools of thought (see Advaita Vedānta).

The beginning of an understanding of the complexities of Hinduism requires a historical context. Perhaps the earliest source of Hinduism was the religion of the Indus Valley (see Indus Valley Mythology) people of the Neolithic, before the invasion of Aryan (see Aryans) peoples from the north. The Indus Valley culture is sometimes referred to as Dravidian (see Dravidians), after the language probably spoken by the people there, or Harappan after one of the two major cities in the area. Indus Valley archeological evidence suggests a goddess-dominated religion with composite human-animal male figures, a tradition of ritual purification in pools, and a system of ritual sacrifice. Ancient seals depict an ithyphallic yogi-like figure with buffalo horns, a figure mirrored in later Hindu representations of the great god Śiva. The dominance of the Goddess is reflected in later Hinduism's emphasis on the various forms of Devī.

The Aryans, who arrived perhaps as early as about 1500 BCE, brought with them an Indo-European religious system and pantheon that bears much resemblance to the patriarchal systems of other Indo-Europeans such as the Greeks and the Iranians. They also brought the beginnings of what would become the characteristic Hindu caste system, a system that would be dominated by the two upper classes—the priestly brahmans (see Brahmans) and the warrior kśtriyas. Preclassical Hinduism or Vedism is expressed most fully in the sacred knowledge called Vedas (see Vedas, Vedic entries), characterized as Śruti or “that which is heard” (see Śruti). First transmitted orally, the Vedas were eventually transcribed—traditionally by the sage Vyāsa (see Vyāsa), who was also said to have written down the great Hindu epic the Mahābhārata (see Mahābhārata). The Vedas developed over many centuries and are made up of several kinds of texts. First are the four Saṃhitās (collections): the ancient ṛg Veda or “chant Veda” (see ṛg Veda), the Sāma Veda and the Yajur Veda (liturgical Vedas), and the Athara Veda (“Atharavan's Veda”). Offshoots of the Vedic texts were developed by schools of Vedic priests. These texts are called Brāhmaṇas (see Brāhmaṇas), Āraṇyakas (see Āraṇyakas), and Upaniśads (see Upaniṣads). The Brāhmaṇas, the most important of which is the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, are expositions of the absolute Brahman by priests or brahmans (see Brahmans), and are concerned with the proper practice of rituals. In the Brāhmaṇas the ṛ g Veda one-time only world-forming sacrifice of the transcendent primal male Puruṣa (see Puruṣa) is essentially replaced by the cyclical death and resurrection sacrifice of Prajāpati (see Prajāpati), himself the source of the creator god Brahmā (see Brahmā), in a sense, a personification of the absolute Brahman. The original Puruṣa would evolve into the person of the god Viṣṇu. The theology that emerges from the Brāhmaṇas is called Brahmanism (see Brahmanism).

The Āraṇyakas (“books of the forest”) are more mystical texts, centering on the inner life and the universal Brahman. They precede the Upaniśads (“mystical understandings”), which move away from Brahmanic teachings about proper ritual to a belief that the individual must seek mokṣa (see Mokṣa), or “release” from the life death continuum or saṃsāra (see Saṃsāra). To achieve mokṣa the disciple must learn—perhaps from a guru—the connection between the transcendent absolute or Brahman and the inner absolute Ātman (see Ātman). It is important to understand that the concept of life and the universe as developed in Vedic philosophy is the essence of Hinduism.

During the eight or nine hundred years after the late Vedic Upaniśads—that is, from about 500 BCE—the great epics the Mahābhārata (see Mahābhārata), including and especially its Bhagavadgītā (see Bhagavadgītā) section of about 200 BCE, and the Rāmāyaṇa (see Rāmāyaṇa) play important roles in the development of a Hinduism dominated by the concepts of bhakti (see bhakti), or “devotion,” and dharma (see Dharma), or “duty.” Much mythical material of this classical Hinduism is also contained in works called Purāṇas (see Purāṇas), or “ancient stories,” written between 400 and 1200 CE (see Hindu Mythology, Tantrism). The epics and the Purāṇas come under the category of smṛti (see Smṛti), “that which is remembered,” rather than the more sacred sṛuti. If the epics and Purāṇas take what might be called mythological liberties, they are, nevertheless, firmly based in Vedic tradition and philosophy. The epics and the Purāṇas are, like the Upaniśads, concerned with paths to salvation or mokṣa. They are also primary sources for Hindu mythology, which is important for everyday “popular” Hinduism.

Several schools of Hinduism have emerged during the many centuries in which attempts have been made to consolidate the many streams of the overall tradition into one “flow.” Of these schools, two have achieved a certain dominance or orthodoxy. Both base their teachings on the Vedic philosophy, but the Mīmāṃsā school stresses the ritual tradition of the Vedas, while the Vedānta (see Vedānta, Advaita Vedānta) school emphasizes the more mystical understandings of the Upaniśads. It must be emphasized, too, that many Hindus are particularly devoted to one of three deities, Śiva, Viṣṇu, and Devī, in their several forms or, in the case of Viṣṇu, avatars (see Avatars of Viṣṇu) or even to lesser deities such as Gaṇeśa (see GaṇeṣBa).

It is tempting for adherents of monotheistic traditions to see all of the Hindu gods as incarnations of the one Absolute or Brahman, and in a sense they are. But Brahman is not “God” in any personal sense. Still, at the level of creation there is a trimūrti of gods working as one being and as aspects of that one Absolute. Brahmā (see Brahmā) is the creator, Śiva the destroyer, and Viṣṇu the preserver. These three roles are important at several levels, the most important of which is the Hindu understanding of the cosmic sacrificial cycles or yugas (see yugas), the throws of the cosmic dice of existence, whereby the universe is destroyed and re-created over and over again. It should be noted, too, that even by the last books of the ṛg Veda the gods seem to take on the characteristics of each other, depending on the context of the hymn in question. One has the distinct sense in Hinduism that a single supreme Absolute expresses itself in many forms or gods.

Confucianism

This great ethical and philosophical system is named after its founder, Confucius (Master Kong), who lived in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC, born into a middle class family, although the family was actually in the superior class of the current dynasty. His Chinese name was later latinised to Confucius by Jesuit missionaries. This form became the convention in most western languages, and accordingly we shall refer to him by this westernised name. When grown up, Confucius went state to state teaching rulers of the states. He is credited with a number of books, the best-known of which is the Analects, a collection of his sayings that was compiled and edited to its modern form during the Han dynasty.

It is debatable whether the system he founded should be called a religion. While it prescribes a great deal of ritual, little of it could be construed as worship or meditation in a formal sense. Confucius occasionally made statements about the existence of other-worldly beings that sound distinctly agnostic and humanistic to western ears. Thus it is usually considered an ethical tradition without being considered a religion.

However, its effect on Chinese society and culture was very deep and parallels the effects of religious movements seen in other cultures. Also, one should guard against too narrow a definition of religion. Those who follow the teachings of Confucius are comforted by it; it makes their lives more complete and their sufferings bearable. Finally, consider the fact that religions in Chinese culture are not mutually exclusive entities - each tradition was free to find its specific niche, its field of specialisation. One can be a Taoist, Christian, Muslim, Shintoist or Buddhist and still profess Confucianist beliefs.

Confucianism specialised in ethics, in the orderly arrangement of society and correct relationships between people. Confucius himself lived in an era (The Eastern Zhou dynasty) when China was divided into a number of small states each ruled by a warlord or nobleman who paid little more than lip service to the emperor who in theory still ruled the Middle Kingdom (China) from the capital, Luoyang. The frequent wars between these states disrupted the structure of society. As a result, there was a deeply felt need for a theory of society that would act as a cohesive factor and that could reunite the Chinese nation. A number of philosophies (e.g. Mohism and Legalism) arose to fulfil this need. That of Confucius was eventually the most successful, due largely to the supremacy it achieved during the Han Dynasty.

Daoism Religion

Daoism is China's indigenous traditional religion; its name stems from 'Dao' being its highest object of faith.

The core of its belief is that by engaging in a process of Cultivation and Refinement, man can attain to a state of Immortality.

Daoist religion reveres Laozi as its Founder; its primary scripture is Laozi's Book of Dao and its Virtue.

Daoism has formed itself gradually over the ages, building upon the ancient Chinese worship of Heaven and Ancestors as its foundation, taking Daoist philosophy as its primary ideological source, absorbing concepts from the Yin-Yang, Mohist, Confucianist and Legalist schools, and adhering to the essential path of cultivation of the Magic and Immortality and Huang-Lao traditions.

Since its formation in the middle of the Eastern Han dynasty (25 - 220 AD), Daoist religion has undergone phases of formation, reform, flourishing and development, division into sects, and gradual decline, over a period of almost two thousand years.

Over the course of its long history of development, it has exercised a deep influence on Chinese government, economy, philosophy, literature, art, music, chemistry, medicine, health cultivation, breathing arts, and gymnastics, as well as China's ethnic relations, ethnic psychology and social customs.

Daoism has also accumulated a large quantity of scriptures and documents, temples and monuments, and sculptures and stone inscriptions, adding to the cultural treasury of the Chinese people and making significant contributions to the progress of human civilization.

Author: Jiang Sheng

Is Buddhism a Religion or a Philosophy?

Lack of standard definition of "religion:"
Whether Buddhism is, or is not, a religion depends upon how the word "religion" is defined. Lots of people have their favorite definition; some think that theirs is the only valid meaning for the term.

Some definitions required a religion to include belief in the existence of one or more deities; this would classify most expressions of Buddhism as a non-religious since it is essentially a non-theistic religion.

Other definitions do not require religion to include belief in a deity; these would probably include Buddhism as a religion.

For example:

Webster's New World Dictionary (Third College Edition): defines religion as: "any specific system of belief and worship, often involving a code of ethics and a philosophy."

Buddhism would not be considered a religion under this definition, because it is basically non-theistic: it does not generally involve worship of a supernatural entity.

Wikipedia once defined religion as: "... a system of social coherence based on a common group of beliefs or attitudes concerning an object, person, unseen being, or system of thought considered to be supernatural, sacred, divine or highest truth, and the moral codes, practices, values, institutions, traditions, and rituals associated with such belief or system of thought." 1

Buddhism could be considered a religion because its various forms share a system of thought that is considered to be the highest truth. It involves moral codes, practices, values, traditions and rituals.

More recently, Wikipedia have adopted the definition of the late Clifford Geertz, an anthropologist from Princeton: Religion is: "an organized approach to human spirituality which usually encompasses a set of narratives, symbols, beliefs and practices, often with a supernatural or transcendent quality, that give meaning to the practitioner's experiences of life through reference to a higher power, God or gods, or ultimate truth. 2,3

Here again, Buddhism would be considered a religion.

Anthony F.C. Wallace, a North American anthropologist who specializes in Native American cultures, suggested a definition as: "a set of rituals, rationalized by myth, which mobilizes supernatural powers for the purpose of achieving or preventing transformations of state in man or nature."4

Buddhism would not be considered a religion because it does not usually involve belief in supernatural powers.

Robert Bellah, professor at the University of California, Berkley, in a legal declaration concerning the nature of transcendental meditation (TM), defined religion as: "a set of symbolic forms and acts that relate man to the ultimate conditions of his existence." 5

If the word "forms" is defined broadly, this would seem to imply that Buddhism is a religion, along with TM.


H.L. Menken, 20th century editor, person of ideas, satirist, and Agnostic defined religion's "...single function is to give man access to the powers which seem to control his destiny, and its single purpose is to induce those powers to be friendly to him." 6

This would imply that Buddhism is not a religion, because it does not presuppose the existence of supernatural powers with whom humans can react.

Buddha is not a god, just a great teacher

Those who do not know the Buddha properly, consider Him a God. The Buddha never esteemed such unnecessary glory, praise or honour. Nor did He expect such things.

" O Bhikkhus, gains, offerings, glory, praise are all harsh and fierce. They are a danger preventing the achievement of the highest bliss of liberation."

The Buddha appeared among men solely to make people see their ignorance, lack of awareness, wrong views, fallacies, and wrong actions. Such a great man will never expect limitless deference, praise or honour from the people.

One day, the Buddha walked along the road from the city of Ukkattha to the city of Setavya. A Brahmin named Drona, travelling along the same road after the Buddha, saw His footprints. He looked at them and thought, " These can never be the footprints of a human being. " The Buddha stepped aside from the road and sat under a tree. Brahmin Drona walked up to the Buddha, whose demeanour was exceedingly calm and serene, and questioned Him thus:

Brahmin : " Are you a God? "

The Buddha : " Brahmin, I am not a God. "

Brahmin : " Are you a Gandhabba ( divine musician )? "

The Buddha : " Brahmin, I am not a Gandhabba. "

Brahmin : " Are you a Yakkha? "

The Buddha : " Brahmin, I am not a Yakkha. "

Brahmin : " Are you a human being? "

The Buddha : " Brahmin, I am not a human being, either. "

Brahmin : " When I ask you whether you are a God, you say " No, I am not a God. " When I ask you whether you are a Gandhabba, a Yakkha or a human being, you say " No. " If that were so, who are you? "

The Buddha : " O Brahmin, if I am a god, I must have those sense-desires. But, I have eradicated sense-desires fully. Therefore, I am not a God. If I am a Gandhabba, I must have sense-desires. But I have eradicated those fully. Therefore, I am not a Gandhabba.

O Brahmin, if I am a Yakkha, I must have the sense-desires that a Yakkha should have. But, I eradicated all that fully. Therefore, I am not a Yakkha, either. O Brahmin, if I am an ordinary human being, I must have the sense-desires of ordinary men. But, I have totally eradicated those. Therefore, I am not a human being like other human beings.